Theories of temperament (humoral, constitutional). Psychological characteristics of temperaments Temperament refers to the characteristics of the psyche

• 1. Choleric- this is a person whose nervous system is determined by the predominance of excitation over inhibition, as a result of which he reacts very quickly, often thoughtlessly, does not have time to slow down (restrain) himself, shows impatience, impetuosity, abruptness of movements, hot temper, unbridledness, lack of restraint. The imbalance of his nervous system predetermines the cyclical change in his activity and vigor: having become carried away by some task, he works passionately, with full dedication, but he does not have enough strength for long. As soon as they are depleted, he works up to the point where everything is unbearable for him. An irritated state appears, Bad mood, loss of strength and lethargy (everything falls out of hand). The alternation of positive cycles of uplifting mood and energy with negative cycles of decline and depression causes uneven behavior and well-being, and an increased susceptibility to neurotic breakdowns and conflicts with people.
• 2. Sanguine He has a high reaction speed, his actions are deliberate, he is cheerful, and he is characterized by high resistance to the difficulties of life. The mobility of his nervous system determines the variability of feelings, attachments, interests, views, and high adaptability to new conditions. This is a sociable person, he easily gets along with new people, so he has a wide circle of acquaintances, although he is not distinguished by constancy in communication and affection. This is a productive figure, but only when there are a lot of interesting things to do, i.e. with constant excitement. Otherwise, he becomes boring, lethargic; distracted. In a stressful situation, it exhibits a “lion reaction”, i.e. actively, thoughtfully defends himself, fights for normalization of the situation.
• 3. Phlegmatic person- a person with an inert nervous system, as a result of which he reacts slowly; taciturn; emotions manifest themselves slowly (difficult to make angry or cheerful); has a high performance capacity, resists strong and prolonged stimuli and difficulties well, but is not able to react quickly in unexpected new situations. He firmly remembers everything he has learned, is unable to give up acquired skills and stereotypes, does not like to change habits, routine, work, friends, and adapts to new conditions with difficulty and slowly. The mood is stable and even. In case of serious troubles, the phlegmatic person remains outwardly calm.
• 4. Melancholic- a person with a weak nervous system, who has increased sensitivity even to weak stimuli, and a strong stimulus can already cause a “breakdown”, a “stopper”, confusion, therefore in stressful situations (exams, competitions, danger) the results of a melancholic person’s activity may worsen compared to a calm, familiar situation. Increased sensitivity leads to rapid fatigue and decreased performance (longer rest is required). A minor reason can cause resentment and tears. The mood is very changeable, but usually a melancholic person tries to hide, not show his feelings outwardly, not talk about his experiences, although he is very inclined to give himself over to his experiences, he is often sad, depressed, unsure of himself, anxious, and may experience neurotic disorders. However, having a highly sensitive nervous system, melancholic people often have pronounced artistic and intellectual abilities. It is difficult to answer exactly what type of temperament he has

or another adult. The type of nervous system, although determined by heredity, is not absolutely unchangeable. With age, as well as under the influence of systematic training, upbringing, and life circumstances, nervous processes can weaken or strengthen, and their switchability can speed up or slow down. For example, choleric and sanguine people predominate among children. They are energetic, cheerful, easily and strongly excited; Having cried, a minute later they can be distracted and laugh joyfully, i.e. there is high mobility of nervous processes. Among older people, on the contrary, there are many phlegmatic and melancholic people.

Temperament is an external manifestation of a type of higher nervous activity of a person, therefore, as a result of education, self-education, this external manifestation can be distorted, changed, and “masking” of the true temperament occurs. That is why pure types of temperament are rarely found, but nevertheless, the predominance of one or another tendency is always manifested in human behavior.

Since each activity makes certain demands on the human psyche and its dynamic characteristics, there are no temperaments ideally suited for all types of activity. It can be figuratively described that people of choleric temperament are more suitable for active risky activities (warriors), sanguines - for organized activities (politicians), melancholics - for creative activities in science and art (thinkers), phlegmatics - for systematic and fruitful activities (creators) . Slowness, inertia, and weakness of the nervous system are contraindicated for certain types of activities of a fighter pilot; therefore, phlegmatic and melancholic people are psychologically unsuitable for such activities.

The role of temperament in work and study is that the influence on the activity of various mental states caused by an unpleasant environment, emotional factors, and pedagogical influences depends on it. The influence of various factors that determine the level of neuropsychic stress depends on temperament. For example, performance assessment, expectation of activity control, acceleration of the pace of work, disciplinary action.

There are four ways to adapt temperament to the demands of activity:

• 1) professional selection, one of the tasks of which is to prevent persons who do not have the necessary temperamental properties from participating in this activity. This path is implemented only during selection in professions that place increased demands on personality traits;
• 2) individualization of the requirements, conditions and methods of work imposed on a person (individual approach);
• 3) overcoming the negative influence of temperament through the formation of a positive attitude towards activity and corresponding motives;
• 4) formation of an individual style of activity (this is the main and most universal way).

Temperament leaves its mark on ways of behavior and communication. For example, a sanguine person is almost always the initiator in communication, he feels at ease in the company of strangers, and a new unusual situation only excites him. A melancholic person, on the contrary, is frightened, confused, and gets lost in a new situation, among new people.

A phlegmatic person also has difficulty getting along with new people, shows little of his feelings and does not notice for a long time that someone is looking for a reason to get to know him.

In behavioral communication, it is possible and necessary to anticipate the peculiarities of the reaction of persons with different types of temperament and respond adequately to them.

The character of a person is an important property; it is a framework of personality, which includes only the most pronounced and closely interrelated personality traits, clearly manifested in various types of activities.

Character is an individual combination of the most stable, significant acquired personality characteristics, manifested in human behavior, in a certain respect:

• towards oneself (degree of demandingness, criticality, self-esteem);
• other people (individualism or collectivism, selfishness or altruism, cruelty or kindness, indifference or sensitivity, rudeness or politeness, deceit or truthfulness, etc.);
• assigned task (laziness or hard work, neatness or sloppiness, initiative or passivity, perseverance or impatience, responsibility or irresponsibility, etc.).

The character reflects strong-willed qualities: willingness to overcome obstacles, mental and physical pain, the degree of perseverance, independence, determination, discipline.

Human character is a fusion of innate properties of higher nervous activity with individual traits acquired during life. People with any type of temperament can be truthful, kind, tactful, or vice versa, deceitful, evil, rude. However, with a certain temperament, some traits are acquired more easily, others more difficult. For example, organization and discipline are easier for phlegmatic people to develop than for choleric people. Being a good organizer and a sociable person is easier for sanguine and choleric people. However, it is unacceptable to justify one’s character defects by innate properties or temperament. You can be responsive, kind, tactful, and self-possessed regardless of your temperament.

Individual character properties depend on each other, are interconnected and form an integral organization, which is called the character structure. In the structure of character, two groups of traits are distinguished. Character traits are understood as certain features of a person’s personality that are systematically manifested in various types of his activities and by which one can judge his possible actions in certain conditions.

The first group includes traits that express the orientation of the individual (stable needs, attitudes, interests, inclinations, ideals, goals), a system of relationships to surrounding reality and representing individually unique ways of implementing these relationships.

The second group includes intellectual, volitional and emotional character traits.

Among character traits, it is customary to distinguish between general (global) and private. Global character properties have an effect on a wide range of behavioral manifestations. It is customary to distinguish five global character traits:

• 1) self-confidence - uncertainty;
• 2) agreement, friendliness - hostility;
• 3) consciousness - impulsiveness;
• 4) emotional stability - anxiety;
• 5) intellectual flexibility - rigidity.

Among the local (private) character traits that influence private, narrow situations, the following can be distinguished:

• sociability - isolation;
• dominance (leadership) - subordination;
• optimism - despondency;
• conscientiousness - lack of conscience;
• courage - caution;
• impressionability - thick skin;
• gullibility - suspicion;
• dreaminess - practicality;
• anxious vulnerability - calm serenity;
• delicacy - rudeness;
• independence - conformism (dependence on the group);
• self-control - impulsiveness;
• passionate enthusiasm - apathetic lethargy;
• peacefulness - aggressiveness;
• active activity - passivity;
• flexibility - rigidity;
• demonstrativeness - modesty;
• ambition - unpretentiousness;
• originality - stereotyping.

Accentuations of character (K. Leonhard) - exaggerated development of certain character traits to the detriment of others, as a result of which interaction with other people deteriorates. The severity of accentuation can vary - from mild, noticeable only to the immediate environment, to extreme options, when you have to wonder if there is a disease - psychopathy.

Leonhard identifies 12 types of accentuation, each of which predetermines a person’s selective resistance to certain life adversities with increased sensitivity to others, to frequent conflicts of the same type, and to certain nervous breakdowns. In favorable conditions, when it is the weak links of the personality that are not affected, such a person can become extraordinary. For example, accentuation of character according to the so-called exalted type can contribute to the flowering of the talent of an artist or an artist.

Character accentuations are often found in adolescents and young men (50-80%). Often you have to deal with accentuated personalities, and it is important to know and anticipate the specific features of people's behavior.

Let's consider brief description behavioral characteristics depending on the types of accentuation:

• hyperthymic(hyperactive) - excessively high spirits, always cheerful, talkative, very energetic, independent, strives for leadership, risk, adventures, does not respond to comments, ignores punishments, loses the line of what is permitted; there is no self-criticism;
• dysthymic- constantly low mood, sadness, isolation, taciturnity, pessimism; is burdened by noisy society, does not get along closely with colleagues, rarely enters into conflicts, and is often a passive party in them;
• cycloid- sociability changes cyclically (high during periods of elevated mood and low during periods of depression);
• emotive(emotional) - excessive sensitivity, vulnerability; He worries deeply about the slightest troubles, is overly sensitive to comments and failures, so he is often in a sad mood;
• demonstrative- expressed desire to be in the center of attention and achieve one’s goals at any cost (tears, fainting, scandals, illnesses, bragging, unusual hobby, outfits, lies); easily forgets about his unseemly actions;
• excitable - increased irritability, lack of restraint, aggressiveness, sullenness, “boringness”, but flattery, helpfulness (as a disguise), a tendency to rudeness and obscene language or silence, slowness in conversation are possible; actively and often conflicts;
• stuck -“gets stuck” on his feelings, thoughts, cannot forget grievances, “settles scores”; official and everyday intractability, a tendency to protracted squabbles; in conflicts he is often an active party;
• pedantic- pronounced boringness in the form of “experiencing” details; in the service he is able to “torment” with formal requirements, exhausts his family with excessive neatness;
• alarming(psychasthenic) - low mood, fears for oneself, loved ones, timidity, self-doubt, extreme indecision; experiences failure for a long time, doubts his actions;
• exalted(labile) - very changeable mood, emotions are clearly expressed, increased distractibility to external events, talkativeness, falling in love;
• introverted(schizoid, autistic) - low sociability, withdrawn, aloof from everyone, communication as necessary; self-absorbed, does not say anything about himself, does not reveal his experiences, although he is characterized by increased vulnerability;
• extroverted(comfortable) - high sociability, talkativeness to the point of talkativeness; does not have his own opinion, is very dependent, strives to be like everyone else, is disorganized, prefers to obey.

Each personality has its own abilities that are different from others. Capabilities- this is individual - psychological characteristics individuals who ensure success in activities, in communication, and ease of mastering them. Abilities cannot be reduced to the knowledge, skills and abilities a person has, but abilities provide them quick acquisition, fixation and effective practical application.

Abilities can be classified:

• on natural (or natural) abilities, which are basically biologically determined, associated with innate inclinations, formed on their basis in the presence of elementary life experience through learning mechanisms such as conditioned reflex connections;
• specific human abilities that have a socio-historical origin and ensure life and development in the social environment.

Specific human abilities, in turn, are divided into:

• 1) into general ones, which determine a person’s success in various types of activity and communication (mental abilities, developed memory and speech, accuracy and subtlety of hand movements), and special ones, which determine a person’s success in certain types of activity and communication, where a special kind of inclinations are needed and their development (mathematical, technical, literary and linguistic abilities, artistic and creative abilities, sports, etc.);
• 2) theoretical, which determine a person’s inclination towards abstract-logical thinking, and practical, which underlies the inclination towards concrete practical actions (the combination of these abilities is characteristic only of multi-talented people);
• 3) educational, which influence the success of pedagogical influence, a person’s assimilation of knowledge, skills, abilities, the formation of personal qualities, and creative, associated with success in creating works of material and spiritual culture, new ideas, discoveries, inventions. The highest degree of creative manifestations of a personality is called genius, and the highest degree of a person’s abilities in a certain activity (communication) is called talent;
• 4) abilities to communicate, interact with people and subject-related abilities related to the interaction of people with nature, technology, sign information, artistic images, etc.

A person who is capable of many and different types of activities and communication has a general talent, i.e. unity general abilities, determining the range of his intellectual capabilities, the level and originality of activity and communication.

Makings are some genetic determined (congenital), anatomical and physiological characteristics of the nervous system that constitute the individual natural basis (prerequisite) for the formation and development of abilities.

Abilities are not static, but dynamic formations; their formation and development occurs in the process of a certain way of organized activity and communication. The development of abilities occurs in stages.

An important point in the development of abilities in military personnel is completeness - the simultaneous improvement of several complementary abilities.

Ways to develop abilities:

• correct appointment of a serviceman to a particular position;
• constant attention to the development of those mental processes and personality qualities that are necessary for mastering a certain specialty;
• development of thinking;
• development of interests and inclinations;
• the ability of an individual to correctly assess their positive qualities and shortcomings;
• participation in collective actions.

Thus, taking into account personality psychology in individual educational work is an important condition for the correct organization of the educational process.

• Psychopathy is a painful deformity of character (while maintaining a person’s intelligence), as a result of which relationships with others are sharply disrupted; psychopaths can be socially dangerous.

Temperament is one of the main characteristics of a person. The word “temperament” itself means, translated from Greek, “the proper ratio of parts.” Temperament is understood as the dynamic characteristics of a person’s mental activity. There are three areas of manifestation of temperament: general activity, characteristics of the motor sphere and properties of emotionality.

General activity is determined by the intensity and volume of human interaction with the environment - physical and social. According to this parameter, a person can be inert, passive, calm, proactive, active, impetuous, etc.

Features of the motor sphere can be considered as partial expressions of general activity. These include tempo, speed of rhythm and total number of movements, etc.

Properties of emotionality: impressionability, sensitivity and impulsiveness.

The founders of the doctrine of temperaments were the ancient Greek doctors N. Hippocrates and K. Galen. They created, in essence, a humoral (from Latin humos - moisture, juice, liquid) theory of temperament. N. Hippocrates believed that some people have a predominance of bile (chole), others have the most blood (sanguinis), others have a particularly large amount of mucus (phlegma) and, finally, others have the greatest amount of black bile (melanos chole). ). The dominance of a particular fluid in a person’s body determines the type of his temperament.

K. Galen identified four types of temperament, which in our time are considered as the main ones: choleric (stormy, impetuous, hot and sharp), sanguine (lively, active, emotional and responsive), phlegmatic (calm, sluggish, slow and stable) and melancholic (sad, depressed, timid and indecisive).

I.P. Pavlov drew attention to the dependence of temperament on the type of nervous system. Studying the three main parameters of the processes of excitation (B) and inhibition (T) (strength - weakness, balance - imbalance, mobility - inertia) and a large number of their possible combinations in nature, he established the four most pronounced types of the nervous system, three of which are strong (unrestrained, alive, calm) and one – weak.

I. P. Pavlov put their manifestations in behavior in direct connection with the ancient classification of temperament. He considered a strong, balanced, mobile type of nervous system as the corresponding temperament of a sanguine person; strong, balanced, inert – phlegmatic temperament; strong, unbalanced – choleric temperament; weak – melancholic temperament.

Each type determines the successful implementation of its specific type of activity. In turn, a person’s mental and volitional capabilities create conditions for compensating for temperamental deficiencies. At the same time, temperament determines a person’s individual style of activity, namely:

Choleric– a subject characterized high level mental activity, energy of action, sharpness, swiftness, force of movements, their fast pace, impetuosity. A choleric person is prone to sudden mood swings, is quick-tempered, impatient, prone to emotional breakdowns, and sometimes aggressive. In the absence of proper upbringing, his lack of emotional balance can lead to an inability to control his emotions in difficult life circumstances.

Sanguine- a subject characterized by high mental activity, energy, efficiency, speed and vivacity of movements, variety and richness of facial expressions, fast pace of speech. A sanguine person strives for frequent changes of impressions, easily and quickly responds to surrounding events, and is sociable. Emotions are predominantly positive (they arise quickly and change quickly). He experiences failures relatively easily and quickly. Under unfavorable conditions, mobility can result in a lack of concentration, unjustified haste in actions, and superficiality.

Phlegmatic person- a subject characterized by slowness and inexpressiveness of facial expressions. It is difficult for him to switch from one type of activity to another, and he has difficulty adapting to a new environment. A phlegmatic person has a calm, even mood, and feelings are usually constant. Under unfavorable conditions, he may develop lethargy, poverty of emotions, and a tendency to perform monotonous habitual actions.

Melancholic– a subject characterized by a low level of mental activity, slowness of movements, restraint of motor skills and speech, and rapid fatigue. Melancholic people are distinguished by the depth and stability of emotions with their weak external expression, and negative emotions predominate. Under unfavorable conditions, a melancholic person may develop increased emotional vulnerability, isolation, and alienation.

The strength of a person’s nervous system is indicated by his high performance, a sufficient degree of restraint in expressing feelings, the ability to wait and listen to others, initiative and perseverance in achieving goals. The weakness of the nervous system is evidenced by opposite properties, i.e. increased fatigue, lack of initiative, suggestibility, tearfulness, timidity.

The balance of nervous processes manifests itself as the absence of a tendency to irritability, mood swings and affective outbursts. Imbalance – such as inability to wait and sleep disturbances.

In the study of temperament there is also the so-called constitutional approach. An attempt to establish a connection between the structure of an individual’s body and his temperament was made by the German psychiatrist E. Kretschmer, who argued that each type of body constitution corresponds to a certain psychological make-up of a person. Based on clinical observations, he came to establish a connection between body types and character types. At the same time, E. Kretschmer identified three main body types and three corresponding types of temperament.

1. Asthenic type The human constitution is characterized by the presence of an elongated and narrow chest, long limbs, weak muscles, and an elongated face, which corresponds to a schizoid temperament. These people are self-absorbed, withdrawn, tend to be overly abstract and do not adapt well to their environment.

2. Picnic type The human constitution (Greek pyknos - thick, dense) is characterized by a broad chest, stocky, broad figure, plumpness, round head, short neck. They are sociable, have a realistic view of the world and are prone to mood swings from a constantly elevated, cheerful state of mind in manic subjects to a constantly depressed, sad state of mind in depressives.

3. Athletic type The human constitution (Greek athlon - fight, fight) is characterized by strong muscles, proportional physique, wide shoulder girdle, narrow hips. These people express emotions with restrained facial expressions and gestures, are outwardly calm and unperturbed, but at times they are subject to outbursts of anger and rage that are inappropriate for the reason. They are characterized by low flexibility of thinking, are petty and difficult to adapt to changes in the environment.

Each type is characterized by certain behavioral traits. For example, the picnic type – cheerfulness, optimism, the desire for the joys of life (eat well, dress well), in connection with this, the most vulnerable organ of the picnic type is the stomach. This type is prone to the formation of manic-depressive psychosis. People of the asthenic type are prone to asceticism and intellectual activity. This type forms schizophrenic disorders. In general, the specific provisions of this theory were not subsequently confirmed.

Constitutional theories also include the concept of the American psychologist W. Sheldon, who identified three main types of somatic constitution: endomorphic (with predominant development of internal organs, a weak, baggy physique and excess fatty tissue), mesomorphic (with developed muscle tissue, a strong, strong body) and ectomorphic (with a fragile physique, weak muscles, long arms and legs), which correspond to three types of temperament: viscerotonia, somatotonia and cerebrotonia.

The constitutional typologies of E. Kretschmer and W. Sheldon and their attempts to connect the body type with the psychological characteristics of the individual were criticized for their desire to directly link the body type, determined genotypically, with the character and temperament of a person, i.e. with the psychological make-up of the individual.

It is impossible to deny the connection between body types and certain character traits and social behavior individual. However, one should not look for the nature of this connection in hereditary conditioning. Body features in themselves do not determine the development of a person’s mental qualities. They can act as organic prerequisites that influence the formation of mental characteristics, and actually manifest themselves in the properties of temperament.

Most researchers identify such properties of human temperament, closely related to each other and to the qualities of his character:

■ Sensitivity is a human characteristic that manifests itself in the occurrence of sensitivity (mental reaction) to an external stimulus.

■ Reactivity is a human characteristic associated with the strength of the emotional reaction to external and internal stimuli.

■ Activity is a person’s ability to overcome external and internal limitations.

■ The pace of reactions is a human feature that consists in the speed of mental processes and states.

■ Plasticity/rigidity – a person’s characteristics are to adapt flexibly and easily to new conditions, or to behave inertly and insensitively in changed conditions.

■ Extraversion/introversion - human characteristics, expressed in the predominant direction of personality activity either outward (to the world of external objects: surrounding people, events, objects) or inward (to the phenomena of one’s subjective world, one’s experiences and thoughts).

■ Impressiveness characterizes the degree of exposure to various stimuli, the time they are stored in memory and the strength of the response to this influence.

■ Emotionality expresses the speed, content, quality, depth, dynamics of emotional processes and states.

■ Impulsivity is a person’s tendency to act on the first impulse, spontaneously, under the influence of external influences or sudden surges of emotions.

■ Anxiety is a person’s increased tendency to experience anxiety in any situation in life, including those not conducive to it.

A certain combination of temperamental properties, manifested in a person’s cognitive processes, actions and communication, determines his individual style of activity. It represents a system of dynamic features dependent on temperament. It can be considered as a result of the adaptation of the innate properties of the nervous system and the characteristics of the human body to the conditions of the activity performed. An individual style of activity ensures the achievement of the best results at the lowest cost.

Due to its direct dependence on the properties of the nervous system, temperament is considered an innate characteristic of a person. In the course of individual development, under educational influence, the individual acquires what we call character.

Temperament- one of the individual characteristics of a person. Under temperament understand dynamic characteristics of mental activity.

Highlight 3 spheres of manifestation temperament:

General activity– determined by the intensity and volume of human interaction with the environment - physical and social. According to this parameter, a person can be inert, passive, calm, proactive, active, impetuous.

Motor sphere– private expressions of general activity. These include pace, speed, rhythm and total number of movements.

Emotionality – impressionability, sensitivity, impulsiveness, etc.

Temperament is a natural relationship between stable individual personality characteristics that characterize various aspects of the dynamics of mental activity and behavior.

The concept of T. arose on the basis of the teachings of ancient Greek. the scientist and physician Hippocrates (VI century BC), who argued that the proportion of the 4 elements that supposedly compose the human body determines the course of physical and mental illnesses (humoral concept).

Properties of T.:

– individual pace and rhythm of mental processes,

– degree of stability of emotions,

– expressiveness and energy of movements,

– intensity of volitional effort, etc., relating to all aspects of mental activity. Similar dynamic properties may. are associated with other psychological conditions - mood, motives for activity, the task at hand, etc. The properties of T. are the most stable individual characteristics that persist for many years, often throughout life, and dynamic features that do not depend on T. are much less stable .

Various combinations of naturally interrelated properties of T. are called T. types. In psychology, it is customary to use the Hippocratic classification of T. types: sanguine, choleric, phlegmatic, and melancholic.

Ideas about human T. are formed on the basis of his characteristic psychological characteristics. 1. A sanguine person is a lively, active person who quickly responds to surrounding events and experiences failures and troubles relatively easily. 2. Slow, imperturbable; A person with stable aspirations and a more or less constant mood, with a weak external expression of mental states is called a phlegmatic person. 3. Choleric - a fast, impetuous person, capable of devoting himself to a task with exceptional passion, but not balanced, prone to violent emotional outbursts (affects), sudden changes in mood. 4. A melancholic is a person who is easily vulnerable, inclined to deeply experience even minor failures, but outwardly reacts sluggishly to his surroundings.

In people of the same type of T., the degree of expression of its individual properties may be different. different. Typical in T. are, firstly, those extreme poles between which differences in the degree of expression of each property are possible, and, secondly, the relationship between its various properties. Therefore, although each person can be classified as a specific type of T., individual differences between people in the properties of T. are infinitely varied.

T.'s type depends on congenital anatomical and physiological characteristics. I.P. Pavlov and his followers sought to prove the direct dependence of the type of T. on the combination (type) of properties of n. With. (neurodynamic concept T.). There are facts that indicate an indirect dependence of the T. type on the anatomical and physiological characteristics of the entire organism as a whole. Each individual property of T. correlates with several properties general type n. With. (and vice versa). Only type N. With. in general, one specific type T corresponds. Therefore, in order to characterize a person, it is not enough to test the properties of his general type n. With.; It is necessary to conduct a psychological study.

Type T., like congenital type N. pp., may vary depending on living conditions and upbringing. The most reliable facts about changes in the type of T. at an early age in connection with past illnesses, dietary habits, hygienic and general living conditions. Individual properties of T. change in quality and degree of expression throughout the entire process of child development. The conditions of education are especially important in this regard. Questions about the degree of hereditary conditioning of the type of T., the variability of individual properties of T. and its type have not yet been sufficiently studied.

A person’s personality does not predetermine his social and moral value as an individual. People of completely different T. may have the same social and moral value, and vice versa: people of the same T. m. b. very different in their social and moral values.

T. also does not predetermine character traits, but there is a close relationship between T. and character traits. Character traits that determine the dynamics of its manifestation depend on T. For example, sociability in a sanguine person is manifested in the easy and quick making of acquaintances, in a phlegmatic person - in the duration and stability of his attachment to his friends and acquaintances, in the desire for a circle of people familiar to him, etc. T. influences the development of individual character traits . Some properties of T. contribute to the formation of certain character traits, while others counteract them. Therefore, depending on the child’s type of T., it is necessary to use individual methods of influencing him in order to cultivate the necessary character traits (see Individual approach). So, in order to cultivate diligence in a melancholic person, he must maintain self-confidence and self-confidence with approval. In relation to a sanguine person, strictness should be shown more often; systematic control should be established over him. There is also an inverse relationship between the manifestations of T. and its character. Thanks to certain character traits, a person can restrain manifestations of T that are undesirable under given circumstances.

T. does not determine the level of general or special (for example, professional) abilities. Certain properties of T. in certain circumstances professional activity can contribute to achieving success in it, but in others with the same activity interfere with it. When the demands of an activity contradict a cl.-l. property of T., then a person chooses such techniques and methods of its implementation that most correspond to his T. and help overcome the influence of negativity. under the given conditions of manifestations of T. The totality of such successful individual appointments and the methods developed by a person in the process of activity characterize his individual style of activity. The acquisition of a certain individual style does not change the T. itself, since an individual style is a set of activity options that are most convenient for a person given the T. he has.

However, there are professions that require certain properties T. very high demands (for example, requirements for endurance and self-control or speed of reactions). Then a necessary condition success becomes the selection of people with T., suitable for a given profession (see Professional suitability, Professional selection).

Thus, not a single aspect of personality - its orientation, character, level of general and special abilities - is predetermined by T., however, the dynamic features of the manifestation of all personality traits depend to one degree or another on the type of T.

Character is an individual combination of stable mental characteristics of a person that determine a typical way of behavior for a given subject in certain life conditions and circumstances. X. is closely connected with other aspects of a person’s personality, in particular with temperament, which determines the external form of expression of X., leaving a peculiar imprint on certain of its manifestations.

The life of a person as a social being is determined by his social existence. It represents the unity of the individual and the typical. On the one hand, the individual uniqueness of the life path, living conditions and activities of each individual person forms the diversity of individual traits and manifestations of X. On the other hand, the general, typical circumstances of life of people living in the same social conditions form the common aspects and traits of X. Typical X. are a product of socio-historical conditions (cf. Modal personality, “social character” in the works of E. Fromm).

H. in general are distinguished by their definiteness and integrity. A definite X. is a X. with the presence of one or more pronounced dominant features (cf. Radical). In people with indeterminate H., such features are absent or very weakly expressed.

There are integral and contradictory X. Integral X. are distinguished by the absence of contradictions between the awareness of goals and the activity itself, the unity of thoughts and feelings. Contradictory X. is characterized by a discord in beliefs and activities, the presence of thoughts and feelings, goals and motives that are incompatible with each other, conflicting aspirations, desires and motivations.

In the structure of X., two groups of features are usually distinguished. The 1st group of X. traits includes those in which the system of a person’s relationship to reality is expressed (g.o. moral qualities). A trace can be identified in them. main types: attitude towards other people, attitude towards work and its results, attitude towards oneself. X's traits that express his attitude towards other people include, for example, such positive traits as sensitivity, humanity, sincerity, and truthfulness.

The 2nd group of X.’s traits includes strong-willed ones, which determine the ability and readiness to manage one’s behavior in accordance with certain principles. X.'s strong-willed traits include such positive traits as determination, perseverance, determination, self-control, endurance, courage, boldness, or, accordingly, negative. traits - stubbornness, indecisiveness, cowardice. Depending on the development of X.'s strong-willed traits, strong and weak X. are distinguished. Weakness of character is negative. quality, even if it is combined with a high social orientation of the individual.

Upbringing has a decisive influence on the development of a child's personality. The formation of X.'s traits in the process of education is facilitated by the creation of appropriate situational mental states. If a certain mental condition occurs quite often, it can gradually become entrenched and become a feature of X.

Character in the narrow sense of the word is defined as a set of stable properties of an individual, which express the ways of his behavior and methods of emotional response.

Differences between character and personality: character traits reflect what How a person acts, and personality traits are what for what he acts.

The most interesting and vital descriptions of character (known as “character typologies”) arose in the border region, at the intersection of two disciplines: psychology and psychiatry. They belong to talented clinicians who, in their typologies, have summarized many years of experience working with people - the experience of observing their behavior, studying their destinies, and helping them in life's difficulties. Here you can find such names as K. Jung, E. Kretschmer, P. B. Gannushkin, K. Leongard, A. E. Lichko and others.

The first works in this direction contained a small number of types. Thus, Jung identified two main types of character: extroverted and introverted; Kretschmer also described only two types: cycloid and schizoid. Over time, the number of types increased. In Gannushkin we already find about seven types (or “groups”) of characters; Leonhard and Lichko have ten to eleven.

The character may be more or less expressed. Three zones of character expression: the zone of absolutely “normal” characters, the zone of expressed characters ( accentuations – obvious and hidden) and a zone of strong character deviations ( psychopathy). The first and second zones refer to the norm (in a broad sense), the third - to the pathology of character. Accordingly, character accentuations are considered as extreme variants of the norm.

He relatively stable in time, that is, it changes little throughout life. This first the sign, according to A.E. Lichko, is well illustrated by the saying: “As in the cradle, so in the grave.”

totality of manifestations character: with psychopathy, the same character traits are found everywhere: at home, at work, on vacation, among friends and among strangers, in short, in any circumstances. If a person, let’s say, is alone at home and another “in public,” then he is not a psychopath.

social maladjustment. A person constantly faces difficulties in life, and these difficulties are experienced either by himself, or by the people around him, or by both.

In case of accentuations there may be no character no one of the above signs of psychopathy, at least never all three signs are not present at once.

Analysis of the problem of “biological foundations of character” leads us to the following conclusions:

-Determinants of character traits should be sought both in the characteristics of the genotypic background and in the characteristics of environmental influences.

–degree of relative participation genotypic and environmental factors in the formation of character can be very different.

–genotypic and environmental influences on character can, so to speak, be summed up algebraically: with an unfavorable combination of both factors, the development of character can give strong degrees of deviation up to pathological forms; with a favorable combination, even a strong genotypic predisposition to an anomaly may not be realized or, at least, not lead to pathological character deviations.

Each type of character is not a random conglomeration of properties; a certain pattern, or “logic,” appears in their combinations.

Individual properties are conditions or prerequisites for the formation of personality.

We can say that the activity of society aimed at the formation of personality, as well as the entire process of personality formation as a whole, “meets” different soil in individual characters. And as a result of such meetings, typical combinations of characterological and personal properties arise. They are reflected in “character types,” although it would be more accurate to speak of “personal-characterological types.”

A normal character is a character without deviations. A person has a normal character if he is not too lively - and not too inhibited, not too withdrawn - and not too open, not too anxious - not too carefree... - and here, continuing, it would be necessary to list all the main features that distinguish, for example, known types of accentuations from each other. In other words, normal character is the “golden mean” of a number of qualities.

Temperament theories:

1. The regulatory theory of temperament by Jan Strelyau considers temperament from the point of view of its role in a person’s adaptation to the conditions of life and activity.

Fundamental characteristics of temperament:

–reactivity - the strength of the human body’s response to influences (sensitivity and endurance) or ability to work;

–activity - intensity and duration of behavioral acts, scope and volume of actions taken.

Basic provisions of the theory:

–There are relatively stable individual differences in relation to the formal characteristics of behavior - intensity (energetic aspect) and time (temporal aspect).

– Temperament characterizes not only humans, but also mammals in general, by qualities of intensity and time.

– Temperamental characteristics are the result biological evolution and therefore must have a genetic basis, which determines their individual manifestations.

However, as an individual grows older and under the influence of special environmental conditions, temperament, within certain limits, can still change.

Y. Strelyau developed a special test questionnaire, which was adapted by domestic psychologists N. R. Danilova and F. G. Shmelev. The test is aimed at studying three main characteristics of the type of nervous activity: the level of excitation processes, the level of inhibition processes, the level of mobility of nervous processes.

2. The theory of integral individuality of V. S. Merlin

IN domestic psychology after the work of B. M. Teplov and V. D. Nebylitsyn, temperament was studied at the school of V. S. Merlin.

V.S. Merlin identified 9 main parameters of temperament that can be observed without special diagnostic tools:

1) emotional excitability;

2) excitability of attention;

3) strength of emotions;

4) anxiety;

5) reactivity of involuntary movements (impulsivity);

6) activity of strong-willed, purposeful activity;

7) plasticity - rigidity;

8) resistance (resistance);

9) subjectification (bias).

However, not all of the listed characteristics can be attributed to temperament unambiguously: for example, the excitability of attention characterizes cognitive processes, volitional activity and subjectivation characterize character traits.

4. Theory of formal-dynamic personality properties

A special theory of individuality that explains the formal-dynamic characteristics of personality was developed by V. M. Rusalov, who clarified some of the provisions of V. S. Merlin’s concept. According to the ideas of V. M. Rusalov, temperament is a psychosociobiological category, basic education psyche, which determines the entire wealth of meaningful characteristics of a person.

Characteristics of temperament:

1) temperament reflects the formal aspect of activity and does not depend on its purpose, meaning, motive;

2) characterizes the individual-typical measure of energy tension and attitude towards the world and oneself;

3) universal and manifests itself in all spheres of life;

4) can manifest itself already in childhood;

5) stable over a long period of human life;

6) highly correlates with the properties of biological subsystems (nervous, humoral, bodily, etc.);

7) is inherited.

When creating his theory of temperament, V. M. Rusalov relied on the teachings of P. K. Anokhin about the action acceptor (the functional system for generating and correcting any behavioral act) and on data from neuropsychophysiology. In accordance with the four blocks of the functional system of P.K. Anokhin: 1) afferent synthesis (collection of sensory information through all channels), 2) programming (decision making), 3) execution and 4) feedback, - V.M. Rusalov highlighted four formal-dynamic properties of temperament:

– ergicity (endurance),

-plastic,

-speed,

– emotionality (sensitivity).

V. M. Rusalov drew attention to the fact that human interaction with the objective (subject-object) and social (subject-subject) influences the formation of various formal-dynamic characteristics. Therefore, first of all, V. M. Rusalov identifies 8 blocks that form the structure of temperament:

1. Subject ergicity - the desire for mental and physical tension, excess or lack of strength.

2. Social ergicity - openness to communication, breadth of contacts, ease of establishing connections.

3. Subject plasticity - viscosity or flexibility of thinking, the ability to switch from one type of activity to another, the desire for variety.

4. Social plasticity - restraint or disinhibition in communication.

5. Subject tempo is the speed of motor operations.

6. Social tempo - speech motor activity, verbalization ability.

7. Subject emotionality is a measure of sensitivity to the discrepancy between the real and desired results.

8. Social emotionality - a feeling of confidence in the communication process, a measure of anxiety about failures in communication.

Based on this theory, V. M. Rusalov developed the “Temperament Structure Questionnaire” (OST) technique.

5. Humoral theory of Hippocrates:

The concept of “temperament” was introduced by Hippocrates. By temperament he understood both the anatomical, physiological, and individual psychological characteristics of a person. Hippocrates explained temperament as behavioral characteristics, the predominance in the body of one of the “vital juices” (four elements):

Choleric. The predominance of yellow bile (Greek chole - “bile, poison”) makes a person impulsive, “hot.”

Phlegmatic person. The predominance of lymph (Greek phlegm - “phlegm”) makes a person calm and slow.

Sanguine. The predominance of blood (Latin sanguis, sanguis, sangua, “blood”) makes a person active and cheerful.

Melancholic. The predominance of black bile (Greek melena chole, “black bile”) makes a person sad and fearful.

6. Neurodynamic theory of I.P. Pavlov:

Pavlov proved that the physiological basis of temperament is the type of higher nervous activity, determined by the relationship between the basic properties of the nervous system: strength, balance and mobility of the processes of excitation and inhibition occurring in the nervous system. The nervous system type is a hereditary type.

The weak type is characterized by weakness of both excitatory and inhibitory processes - melancholic.

The strong unbalanced type is characterized by a strong irritability process and a relatively strong inhibition process - choleric, “uncontrollable” type.

A strong, balanced, mobile type is a sanguine person, a “living” type.

Strong, balanced, but with inert nervous processes - phlegmatic, “calm” type.

7. Constitutional theories:

The idea of ​​somatotypes is based on the assumption that behavior or personality is determined by the physical characteristics of the body. The somatotyping process is a method by which the physical aspects of a person's body are described.

The beginning of the era of somatotyping is associated with the works of E. Kretschmer, who proposed in the early 1920s. classification of human physique:

picnic (wide, with rounded shapes and a lot of fat, strong and stocky)

athletic type (muscular, with a wide chest and narrow hips)

asthenic type (long, thin and fragile)

dysplastic type (dys - bad, plastic - formed) - deviating from any of the three main categories.

Kretschmer came to the conclusion that there is a clear connection between body types and mental disorders:

Picnic – manic-depressive psychosis

Asthenic – schizophrenia

Athletic type – epilepsy

7. Sheldon’s theory of somatotypes

Influenced by the views of Kretschmer, W. Sheldon proposed the theory of somatotypes, which otherwise linked physique with temperament.

3 main measurements for assessing physical constitution:

Endomorphy - manifests itself in soft roundness in various parts of the body and a tendency towards dominance in its overall structure of the internal digestive organs.

Mesomorphy refers to the relative predominance of muscle, bone, and connective tissue. A mesomorphic body type typically appears heavy, strong, and boxy, with a strong predominance of muscle and bone.

Ectomorphy – long, thin limbs with weakly defined muscles. In the total body mass of the ectomorph, a large brain stands out.

In the somatotyping technique proposed by Sheldon, each individual is ranked according to the degree of expression in his physique of each of the three primary physical dimensions.

In parallel with the three main physical components, Sheldon identified 3 temperamental components:

Viscerotonia is characterized by a love of comfort, food, sociability and affection.

Somatotonia manifests itself in an increased tendency to muscle activity and is generally associated with a thirst for power, ruthlessness, sometimes reaching the point of cruelty, and a love of danger and risk.

Cerebrotonia in its extreme expression means excessive restraint in the expression of feelings, stiffness and fear of social contacts.

Each body type corresponds to a temperament type:

Ectomorph - cerebratonia

Those. a person with long, thin limbs is restrained in expressing feelings, constrained and afraid of social contacts.

Endomorph – visciratonia

Those. a person with soft roundness in various parts of the body is characterized by a love of comfort, food, sociability and affection.

Mesamorph - somatotonia

Those. a person with a predominance of muscles, bones and connective tissues is characterized by an increased tendency to muscular activity and is generally associated with a thirst for power, ruthlessness, sometimes reaching the point of cruelty, and a love of danger and risk