Theoretical and methodological foundations and principles of special psychology. Methods for studying abnormal children

relate to the peculiarities of organizing and conducting research, and therefore can be designated as specific methodological.

The comparative principle, the meaning of which is obvious: empirical data obtained in an experiment or observation are assessed as scientifically valid only if they are compared with similar factual material reproduced on a comparable sample of normally developing children.

Another principle - dynamic - represents a logical continuation of the comparative one. Adequate information about the nature of a particular deviation can be obtained as a result of conducting multiple time slices. The nature of the deviation, its originality and quality are reproducible only in dynamics.

The principle of an integrated approach is as follows: in a psychological examination of children with disabilities, especially when interpreting the results obtained, the psychologist is obliged to take into account clinical data (neurological and somatic status, state of vision, hearing, speech, motor sphere, the possibility of a hereditary nature of the disorders, etc.)

The principle of a holistic, systemic study “involves, first of all, the detection of not just individual manifestations of mental development disorders, but the connections between them, the determination of their causes, the establishment of a hierarchy of detected deficiencies or deviations in mental development...” (Lubovsky)

Focus on qualitative analysis is another principle of studying children with developmental disabilities, but it does not deny the possibility of using quantitative comparisons using various statistical processing procedures - correlation, factor, cluster, variance analysis, etc.

Characteristics of specific methodological principles of special psychology.

specific methodological, that is, explanatory principles regarding the understanding of various phenomena of deviant development.

The first principle is ontogenetic. Its main meaning boils down to the fact that the main patterns of mental development remain fundamentally common for both normal and pathological cases. a violation is one of the properties of the development process itself, without which it is impossible to adequately understand its properties, even negative ones.

The second principle is the system-structural approach. The idea of a systemic structure of consciousness was first expressed by L. S. Vygotsky, who proposed viewing the psyche as a complex integral formation. a simple statement of a violation of any element of the psyche without first studying its properties and indicating which component of this structure is violated is essentially ignoring the systemic-structural approach and depriving psychological analysis of any content.

The third principle is level analysis. The formation of the psyche is carried out thanks to the inextricable unity of the processes of differentiation, integration and hierarchization (the consistent subordination of some functions to others). Thus, in the case of a disorder of a young and more complex function, as a rule, there is a “release” of a more elementary one, subordinate to it, which can manifest itself in a decrease in the level of arbitrariness of its regulation

Prerequisites for the emergence of special psychology.

knowledge about the human psyche, including mental disorders, began to be concentrated first of all. People with such disorders have always lived in human society and could not help but attract the attention of others. Everyday consciousness is an unsystematic set of everyday ideas about certain phenomena of the surrounding world. Observing the behavior of persons with deviations, people tried to explain the reasons that caused them. For the first time, an attempt to give a rational explanation of the nature of various deviations in mental development was made within the framework of medicine. The nature of this explanation and methods of treatment directly depended on the development of natural science and, above all, on ideas about the structure and functions of the nervous system and their connection with the psyche. The first scientific, in the strict sense of the word, ideas began to form in the process of systematic training and education of children with disabilities developmental disorders. A similar system began to take shape in Europe in the 18th century under the influence of humanistic and educational ideas. Not the least role in this process was played by the popularity of sensationalistic theories that emphasized the exclusive role of training and upbringing in the mental development of the child. The period until the end of the 19th century can be considered as a special stage in the development of special psychology, which is characterized by its “involved” state in the correctional pedagogical process; a stage at which it has not yet emerged as an independent form of cognitive activity with its own subject and methods.

The formation of special psychology as an independent discipline was greatly facilitated by the development of experimental psychology in the second half of the 19th century. By the 1990s, applied branches of psychology began to take shape. The first practical areas in which they tried to use psychological knowledge were the clinic and school. At the beginning of the 20th century, the clinical aspect in special psychology clearly dominated. And this is no coincidence, given that the first specialists in this newly emerging field were doctors, and, above all, psychoneurologists. It is interesting to note that at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries, the subjects of special and medical psychology were often not separated and were often confused with psychopathology.

An important factor in the development of special psychology was the success of clinical medicine - ophthalmology, otolaryngology, and child psychiatry, which was taking its first steps.

The history of the creation of the theoretical foundations of special psychology and its methodology is closely connected with the name of the outstanding Russian psychologist Ya. S. Vygotsky. In the 20s. XX century On the basis of the theory he created for the development of higher mental functions, he formulated and substantiated modern ideas about the nature and essence of abnormal development.

The methodological foundations of special psychology, like all general psychology, are based on the methodological principles of dialectical materialism. They act in relation to psychology as a general philosophical system of explanatory principles. Three principles are most important for understanding abnormal development: the principle of determinism, the principle of development, and the principle of the unity of consciousness and activity. These principles act as general scientific principles of psychology.

1. The principle of determinism is when real natural and mental processes are deterministic, that is, they arise, develop and are destroyed naturally, as a result of the action of certain causes. Determinism is the fundamental principle of materialism. Determinism is a methodological principle according to which, from the fact that everything in the world is interconnected and caused by a cause, it follows that it is possible to know and predict events that have both a clearly defined and probabilistic nature. It also means that all psychological phenomena are understood as phenomena causally determined by objective reality and are a reflection of objective reality. All mental phenomena are considered to be caused by the activity of the brain. This principle presupposes, when studying mental phenomena, the obligatory establishment of the causes that caused these phenomena.

2. The principle of development. This principle is expressed in the fact that all mental phenomena are considered as constantly developing quantitatively and qualitatively. A correct assessment of a child’s mental state is possible by studying the dynamics of his development.

3. The principle of the unity of consciousness and activity means a two-way connection between consciousness and activity. On the one hand, a person’s consciousness, his psyche are formed in activity, on the other hand, activity is a reflection of a person’s level of consciousness. Only in activity can one establish the characteristics of mental properties, states, and processes. This principle requires a defectologist to study the mental development of an abnormal child in the process of various activities. Only in this case is it possible to form new mental processes and correct impaired functions in activity.

Special psychology accumulates theoretical methods of practical work necessary for the development of other areas of psychology. The study of mental characteristics of different categories of children with gross developmental anomalies contributes to the understanding of the patterns of mental ontogenesis in normal conditions. Helping to overcome the difficult problems of teaching and raising children with gross developmental anomalies, special psychology has accumulated means of resolving the learning difficulties of children who do not have such pronounced disorders.

2) CAUSAL PRINCIPLE.

3) PRINCIPLE OF COMPLEXITY. Psychological assistance can only be considered in a complex of clinical, psychological and pedagogical influences. Its effectiveness largely depends on taking into account clinical and pedagogical factors in the development of the child. (For example, a psychologist must have complete information about the causes and specifics of the child’s illness, upcoming treatment tactics, length of hospitalization, and prospects for medical rehabilitation).

This principle also requires constant interaction between the psychologist and medical and teaching staff.

4) PRINCIPLE OF THE ACTIVITY APPROACH. Psychological assistance should be carried out taking into account the leading type of activity of the child. (For example, if this is a preschooler, then in the context of play activities, if a schoolchild, then in educational activities).

5) PRINCIPLE OF DEVELOPMENT. The category of development, which is central in domestic and foreign psychological science, acts as an important methodological principle of psychology. The process of development in psychology is considered as a complex cumulative process. Each subsequent stage of mental development includes the previous one, transforming at the same time. The quantitative accumulation of changes prepares for qualitative changes in mental development.

The principle of development should be the basis of any type of activity in working with children with developmental problems, from diagnosis to psychodevelopmental and corrective measures.

The methodology of special psychology is based on the principles of dialectical materialism. They form the philosophical basis of ideas about the cultural and historical conditioning of the human psyche, the formation of mental processes under the influence of social factors, the indirect nature of these processes, and the leading role of speech in their organization.

1. PRINCIPLE OF DETERMINISM very important for understanding developmental disorders. The core of determinism is the position of the existence of causality, i.e. such a connection of phenomena in which one phenomenon (cause), under certain conditions, necessarily gives rise to another phenomenon (effect). In psychology, determination is understood as a natural and necessary dependence of the characteristics of mental development on the factors that generate them.

According to the principle of determinism, each developmental atypia is caused by a specific relationship of biological and social factors and is unique in the mechanisms of its occurrence.

In a general psychological sense, the principle of determinism expresses the idea that mental reflection, its highest level (consciousness) is determined by the way of life and changes depending on external conditions.

The principle of determinism states:

Mental phenomena are conditioned by objective reality and reflect this reality;

Mental phenomena are caused by the activity of the brain;

The study of mental phenomena involves establishing the causes that caused this phenomenon.

Determinism in its philosophical understanding means that an external cause does not directly determine a person’s reaction, but acts through internal conditions (Rubinshtein S.L.). Depending on internal conditions, the same external influence can lead to different consequences. The connection between the cause (biological or social; unfavorable factors of a hereditary, congenital or acquired nature) and the effect (type of developmental deviation) is complex and indirect. As a result, the cause of this or that phenomenon may be events or factors that do not immediately cause consequences, but their accumulation leads to a certain shift. These are so-called cumulative cause-and-effect relationships. It is through such mechanisms that most mental development disorders in children arise.

Mental development is characterized by heterochrony. Therefore, the same factors have different effects on different “components” of development. The same environmental influences can lead to different consequences at different stages of ontogenesis. In any case, the reaction to environmental influences at a particular point in time is determined not only by the current state, but also depends on what environmental influences existed previously. Each new environmental influence “lays down” on the result of previous influences.

It follows that when studying the development of the psyche during its disturbance, it is necessary to take into account:

Various types of determinants;

Their consistency and variability in the process of development, since the relationships between different types of determinants in the process of child development are not constant and especially change during critical and sensitive periods of development.

Deviations in mental development in children, from the standpoint of determinism, look like a process determined by a system of multi-level determinants. These determinants are an interplay of biological, social and psychological factors that have complex macro- and micro-influences. Each type of deviant development has a specific system of determination.

Any mental development is characterized by a change in determinants, the formation of new mental qualities and the transformation of previous qualities.

The study of developmental disorders shows that they are determined by pathological factors. Identifying these factors is one of the diagnostic tasks. All studies indicate that mental development disorders in children have a multifactorial genesis.

2) PRINCIPLE OF DEVELOPMENT. It represents the position according to which the psyche can be correctly understood only if it is considered in continuous development. All mental phenomena are constantly changing and developing in quantitative and qualitative terms. L.S. attached great importance to the principle of development. Vygotsky. He, however, spoke about the historical principle, but explained that historical study means the application of the category of development to the study of phenomena. To study something historically means to study it in movement, in development. It is believed that L.S. Vygotsky was the first to introduce the historical principle into the field of child psychology.

The category of development, which is central in domestic and foreign psychological science, acts as an important methodological principle of psychology. The process of development in psychology is considered as a complex cumulative process. Each subsequent stage of mental development includes the previous one, transforming at the same time. The quantitative accumulation of changes prepares for qualitative changes in mental development.

The principle of development involves the analysis of developmental disorders, taking into account the age stage at which this disorder arose and the previous deviations on which it was layered. When describing the qualitative and quantitative characteristics of a disorder, it is important to take into account its dynamics: a tendency to progression or stabilization.

The principle of development should be the basis of any type of activity in working with children with developmental problems, from diagnosis to psychodevelopmental and corrective measures. With a proper psychological examination of children with developmental disabilities, it is possible to predict the effectiveness of correctional and developmental education and the likelihood of spontaneous normalization.

PRINCIPLE OF THE ACTIVITY APPROACH. This principle is associated with the idea that the psyche is formed in activity. This principle in a broad philosophical sense means the recognition of activity as the essence of human existence. Activity creates and changes the conditions of existence of individuals and society as a whole. In the process of activity, a person satisfies his needs and interests, learns about the world around him. Thus, activity appears as a process that determines the formation of the human personality.

In special psychology, the principle of activity is given great importance; activity is understood as a TRANSFORMATING ACTIVITY generated by needs, during which the process of communication arises and cognition is carried out. Therefore, the content of the operating principle is revealed in 2 BASIC PROVISIONS:

1. activity - interaction of subjects, generating the process of communication;

2. . activity is the interaction of subject and object, ensuring the process of cognition.

In this regard, it is important to specify the activity approach to the analysis of mental development disorders. It is based on the idea that each mental function, developing in the process of activity, acquires a complex structure consisting of a number of links. Violation of the same function occurs in different ways: its nature depends on which link is defective. Then the central task of psychological research into developmental disorders is to identify its specifics. Here the principle of activity merges with the principle UNITY OF CONSCIOUSNESS AND ACTIVITY, which is a statement that their unity is inseparable and that consciousness forms the internal plane of human activity. S.L. Rubinstein interprets this principle as the manifestation and formation of consciousness in activity.

The principle of the unity of consciousness and activity implies that consciousness is the regulator of human behavior. However, the main thing, according to A.N. Leontyev, is not at all to point out the active, controlling role of consciousness. “The main problem is to understand consciousness as a subjective product, as a transformed form of manifestation of those relations that are social in nature, which are carried out by human activity in the objective world.”

Research by A.N. Leontyev and his school showed that the unity of the psyche and external activity lies in the fact that mental processes are also activity.

Following Vygotsky L.S. and Leontiev A.N. P.Ya. Halperin experimentally proved that new types of mental activity are initially assimilated in an external, material form, and then transformed into an internal, mental form. During this process, external objects of activity are replaced by their mental analogues (ideas, concepts), and practical operations are transformed into mental, theoretical operations.

When studying children with disabilities and developmental disabilities, the principle of the unity of consciousness and activity is realized in the fact that the child’s activity is considered as an important criterion for the level of his development. In addition, the principle of the unity of consciousness and activity is implemented in the methodology of psychocorrectional classes, which are based on the child’s objective and practical actions.

Psychological assistance should be carried out taking into account the leading type of activity of the child. (For example, if this is a preschooler, then in the context of play activities, if a schoolchild, then in educational activities).

In addition, in correctional work it is necessary to focus on the type of activity that is personally significant for the child and adolescent. This is especially important when working with children with severe emotional disturbances.

The effectiveness of psychological assistance depends to a large extent on the use of productive activities of the child (drawing, designing, etc.).

The stated principles serve as the basis for the theoretical concepts and methodology of special psychology, an objective approach to the study of mental development disorders and the justification of correctional and developmental education.

Along with philosophical and general psychological principles, special psychology is based on A NUMBER OF PRINCIPLES WITH A MORE SPECIFIC SCIENTIFIC SIGNIFICANCE:

1) PRINCIPLE OF PERSONAL APPROACH to a child with developmental problems. In the process of psychological assistance to a child with psychophysical disorders, no particular function or isolated mental phenomenon is taken into account, but the personality as a whole with all its individual characteristics is considered

Rogers, the founder of client-centered therapy,

3 MAIN DIRECTIONS OF THIS PRINCIPLE:

A) each person has unconditional value and deserves respect as such;

B) each person is able to be responsible for himself;

C) every individual has the right to choose values and goals and make independent decisions.

A psychologist must accept any child and his parents as unique, autonomous individuals, for whom the right of free choice, self-determination, and the right to live their own life is recognized and respected.

2) CAUSAL PRINCIPLE. Psychological assistance to children with developmental disorders should be more focused not on the external manifestations of developmental deviations, but on the actual sources that give rise to these deviations. The implementation of this principle helps to eliminate the causes and sources of deviations in the mental development of a sick child.

A complex hierarchy of relationships between symptoms and their causes, the structure of the defect will determine the tasks and goals of psychological assistance.

COMPLEXITY PRINCIPLE. It dictates the need for cooperation between specialists from different fields in the examination of children with atypical development. Each specialist records in the child’s impaired development and the rationale for helping him those features that fall within the scope of his competence. The data is entered into a professional examination scheme and can be compiled into a unifying table, which contains the results of the child’s examination by other specialists. A multidimensional study of a child with atypical development provides a cumulative result that allows us to identify the causes of pathology, approach the interpretation of its mechanisms and justify assistance.

The stated provisions are significant not only for diagnosis, but also for providing psychological assistance to children, developing its strategy and tactics at different stages of work with the child, his family or microgroups of children's institutions where he is studying or being raised.

Psychological assistance can only be considered in a complex of clinical, psychological and pedagogical influences. Its effectiveness largely depends on taking into account clinical and pedagogical factors in the development of the child. (For example, a psychologist must have complete information about the causes and specifics of the child’s illness, upcoming treatment tactics, length of hospitalization, and prospects for medical rehabilitation).

Implementation of the principle of complexity in practice means that specialists from different fields must begin to provide assistance to children with developmental atypia jointly and act in parallel, coordinating solutions to an interrelated range of tasks.

4) PRINCIPLE OF SYSTEM STRUCTURAL-DYNAMIC STUDY. The highlighted principle is based on the ideas of B.G. Ananyeva, B.F. Lomova and others about the systems approach in psychology. Each system presupposes the presence of a system-forming foundation that unites its constituent elements as relatively homogeneous. A necessary feature of a system is a certain connection between its constituent elements.

Historically, this principle is associated with the consideration of L.S. Vygotsky’s hierarchy of defects: identifying primary, secondary, tertiary defects. The views of L. S. Vygotsky largely predetermined the systematic approach to the study of an abnormal child, the need to search for connections between different stages of mental development and the obligation to study the influence of individual disorders on development as a whole. The principle of systemic structural-dynamic study requires determining the hierarchy in mental development disorders, as well as analyzing each of the components of the child’s activity (motivational, orientation, execution and control of the result).

This principle is widely used in Russian neuropsychology by representatives of A.R. Luria’s school. He contributed to the identification of HMF disorder syndromes in brain lesions and the creation of a theory of HMF localization. Disturbances in mental processes can be caused by pathology of various links and structures and manifest themselves at various stages of mental activity. Therefore, when psychologically studying a child, it is important to establish not only disturbances in activity and mental processes, but also which links in their structure turned out to be defective, and which ones contribute to compensation for the defect.

5) PRINCIPLE OF QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS. It involves focusing the researcher’s attention on the child’s actions in completing the task and his behavior during the examination (methods of completing the task and making decisions, type of errors, the child’s attitude towards his mistakes and adults’ comments) as opposed to focusing only on the result.

Qualitative analysis allows us to find out what level of organization of mental activity the defect is associated with. Such an analysis makes it possible to determine whether a certain symptom is a sign of a primary disorder in mental development or a consequence of an existing defect.

Qualitative analysis does not oppose quantitative analysis; quantitative indicators only clarify it.

BASIC PRINCIPLES, APPROACHES TO ORGANIZATION

ACTIVITIES OF A SPECIAL PSYCHOLOGIST:

Recently, many authors have turned their attention not only to the principles of special psychology as a science, but also to the activities of psychologists in special educational institutions, thereby emphasizing the importance of understanding and studying the technologies of the psychologist’s activities.

1) The principle of theoretical and methodological “positioning” of the psychologist.

2) The principle of unity of methodology, diagnostic and correctional

activities.

The principle of structural-dynamic integrity.

The principle of terminological adequacy.

Assessing the effectiveness of a psychologist through the adaptation of a child in an educational environment.

Priority of educational objectives.

The principle of interdisciplinarity and the coordinating nature of the psychologist’s activities.

Ethical principles and the associated principle of professional competence.

Before moving on to the analysis of each of these provisions, it should be noted that they are all closely related and follow from one another. Separating their content and subordination presents significant difficulties.

PRINCIPLE OF THEORETICAL-METHODOLOGICAL

POSITIONING- is determined by the need to determine one’s own theoretical position, commitment to a particular theoretical school, scientific concept.

(What theoretical approaches we use, within what theoretical concept our work takes place, on what methodological principles the organization of our activities is built).

This is especially important, since it was at the end of the 20th century that a large number of different methodological approaches and concepts appeared, confirmed by experimental studies, on the basis of which diagnostic and correctional and developmental tools were developed, widely used in real practice. There are often cases when a specialist, declaring his belonging to one theoretical concept in the actual practice of diagnosis and correction, without thinking, uses completely different conceptual approaches, sometimes fundamentally opposite.

All this makes it necessary to place special demands on the theoretical and methodological position of a psychologist, including a psychologist working in the special education system.

2) PRINCIPLE OF UNITY OF METHODOLOGY, DIAGNOSTIC AND CORRECTIONAL ACTIVITIES- comes from the need for the closest connection between the theoretical positions of the psychologist, the corresponding methodology and specific diagnostic tools built on the basis of the same methodology.

The principle of the trinity of theory, diagnosis and correction gives us the opportunity for integrity and integrity in the study of child development and the complexity of psychological assistance. In accordance with this provision, the possibility of using one or another diagnostic procedure or technique to assess the characteristics of the formation of the cognitive, regulatory and affective-emotional spheres of the child is determined, i.e. A DIAGNOSTIC, and subsequently a CORRECTIONAL AND DEVELOPMENTAL SCENARIO OF PSYCHOLOGICAL WORK is being constructed.

3) THE PRINCIPLE OF STRUCTURAL-DYNAMIC INTEGRITY of studying and working with a child. It is expressed in the idea that individual aspects of mental organization (mental functions and processes, individual spheres) are not isolated, but appear holistically, exist in a single structural organization and respond equally holistically to all external influences, transforming them through the child’s own internal activity to development, to interaction with the surrounding educational environment.

In accordance with this principle, each specific feature of the child’s condition should be studied and assessed both from the point of view of age correlation and in accordance with a certain sequence of development, interaction and heterochrony (multi-time) maturation of certain functions included in a single “ensemble” of the formation of that or other characteristics of the child’s activities.

The application of this principle allows not only to record individual violations or lack of formation in any area, but also to determine the causes and situation of their occurrence, to evaluate the structure and hierarchy of development problems.

4) PRINCIPLE OF TERMINOLOGICAL ADEQUACY.

It is one of the most painful problems of special psychology.

Questions have been repeatedly raised and are being raised: how to more accurately define and designate the various categories of children who are in the field of view of special psychology, how to more correctly (more accurately and humanely) define many concepts in the field of diagnostics, when making a psychological diagnosis, and organizing correctional and developmental work.

Extremely relevant at the present time is the problem associated with the use of adequate terminology in the actual practice of a child psychologist, which can be clearly distinguished from the concepts of related disciplines.

Among specialists working with children with developmental, learning and behavioral problems, today there are significant differences in many concepts and ideas. (For example, what is behind the general concept of “problem child”; how are the boundaries of individual differences within the conventional age norm defined; what are the boundaries of deviations from the norm). Many concepts do not correspond either to modern humanistic principles or to the ethics of a specialist.

Terminological confusion also extends to the content of the activities of a special psychologist with such different categories of children. The adequacy of the terminology of a special psychologist should be extended to all areas of his activity: diagnostic, correctional and developmental, advisory, etc.

To give clear definitions and indicate the content of terms and concepts related to these areas means to reveal the content of the functionality of a special psychologist.

This problem must be solved both in matters of humanization of education, psychological ethics, and as a result of developing psychologically adequate terminology in all aspects of the work of a special psychologist.

5) PRINCIPLE OF EVALUATING PERFORMANCE EFFECTIVENESS

PSYCHOLOGIST THROUGH ADAPTATION OF A CHILD IN EDUCATION

WEDNESDAY.

This principle of organizing the activities of a special psychologist is extremely important in the overall assessment of the quality of the psychologist’s work.

Considering mental health as an integral indicator of well-being in mental development, it is proposed to evaluate it on the basis of such a psychological criterion as the degree of socio-psychological adaptation of the child, which is defined primarily as the success of adaptation to the socio-psychological requirements of the environment.

The change in the degree of maladaptation under the influence of the correctional and developmental work of a psychologist and the transition of the child’s condition from one group of “psychological health” to another, less severe in terms of adaptation, is defined as a criterion for the effectiveness of psychological activity.

6) PRINCIPLE OF PRIORITY OF EDUCATIONAL TASKS.

Determined by the status of a psychologist in an educational institution.

It is no secret that the attitude towards a psychologist as a last resort, as a specialist who “CAN EVERYTHING AND IN CONNECTION WITH THIS SHOULD...” STILL PREVAILS IN THE CONSCIOUSNESS OF MANY TEACHERS AND ADMINISTRATION. This also penetrates into the professional self-perception of psychologists.

It is necessary to understand the status of a psychologist as an auxiliary specialist in relation to the teacher - a specialist who solves additional (rather than basic) problems of education.

The most important indicator that a psychologist must take into account in his work is the assessment of the child’s ability to master appropriate development and training programs and the optimization of educational influences associated with this opportunity.

7) THE PRINCIPLE OF AN INTERDISCIPLINARY APPROACH AND THE COORDINATING NATURE OF THE ACTIVITY OF A PSYCHOLOGIST.

This principle determines the need to understand the assessment of the child’s condition from the point of view of various areas of psychology. This principle reflects the need to use various approaches and tactics in diagnostic, correctional, advisory and other activities, as well as taking into account the opinions of various specialists.

It is obvious that without a multifaceted and multidisciplinary assessment of the child’s condition from different professional points of view, it is impossible not only to determine the prognosis for further development, but also to make a nosological (medical) diagnosis, draw up a psychological report, give a pedagogical assessment, and individualize the educational route.

The implementation of this principle in practice further consolidates the leading role of the psychologist as the organizer of the entire process of accompanying a child with developmental problems.

Thus, it is the psychologist’s functionality that needs to include coordination work to unite all specialists into a single team - a clearly and well-functioning support mechanism.

PRINCIPLE OF COMPLIANCE WITH ETHICAL STANDARDS AND PROFESSIONAL COMPETENCE.

The ethical principles of a psychologist’s activity are especially important in the system of special education of a special psychologist, who in his daily work repeatedly encounters endlessly complex ethical problems (in conversations with parents, specialists, in maintaining confidentiality and non-disclosure of secrets, in positive disclosure of test results, etc. ).

Ethical principles should also include reflection on one’s own professional competence. Professional competence as a component of the ethics of any specialist is currently acquiring great importance.

It is very important to be able to limit the circle of your competence so as not to exceed your capabilities and ultimately not harm the child.

...Important for understanding abnormal development is the principle of determinism. It means Firstly, that all mental phenomena, like the psyche as a whole, are understood as phenomena causally determined by objective reality, as a reflection of this reality; Secondly, that all mental phenomena are considered to be caused by the activity of the brain; Thirdly, This principle presupposes, when studying mental phenomena, the obligatory establishment of the causes that caused these phenomena. Determinism in its philosophical understanding means that an external cause does not directly determine a person’s reactions, but acts through internal conditions.

Determinism cannot be viewed as a unilinear system (cause - effect). Determinism is not limited to such (causal) connections. There are determinants that do not themselves generate events, but influence them (catalysts). In real mental life, the effect does not arise immediately after the cause, but after some time. As a result, the cause of a particular phenomenon may be a number of events or factors, each of which in itself does not cause an effect, but their accumulation leads to a certain consequence. These are so-called cumulative cause-and-effect relationships. It is also important that mental development is characterized by heterochrony. Therefore, the same reason in relation to some “components” leads to one result, and in relation to others – to different ones. It follows that when studying the patterns of mental development of an abnormal child, it is necessary to take into account:

– various types of determinants;

– their systematicity and changeability in the development process (the relationships between different types of determinants in the process of child development are not constant and are associated with critical and sensitive periods of development).

The doctrine of abnormal development shows the causality of changes in the development of an abnormal child. The determinacy of all phenomena characterizing abnormal development is associated with various pathological factors. Identifying these factors is one of the diagnostic tasks when identifying difficulties in the development and learning of a child.

Development principle involves an analysis of the process of occurrence of a defect, an explanation of what change in previous development this defect is a product of. This principle is expressed in the fact that all mental phenomena are considered as constantly quantitatively and qualitatively changing and developing, and a correct characterization of any mental phenomenon is possible only if its characteristic features at a given moment, the reasons for the occurrence of changes and possible prospects for subsequent changes are simultaneously clarified . Thus, the principle of development does not focus on a static description of the defect, but on clarifying the dynamics of its development...

The principle of the unity of consciousness and activity. It is known that biologically inherited properties constitute only one of the conditions for the formation of mental functions. It is necessary for a person to master the world of objects and phenomena created by humanity. It is activity that is the condition for the emergence, the factor of formation and the object of application of human consciousness. The principle of the unity of consciousness and activity means that consciousness is the regulator of human behavior and actions.

When studying abnormal children, the implementation of the principle of unity of consciousness and activity is expressed in the fact that the activity of an abnormal child is one of the important parameters for assessing the level of his development.

Thanks to the application of these principles in special psychology, an objective approach to the study of the psyche of abnormal children is carried out.

The methodological foundations and theoretical concepts of special psychology determine the general methodological strategy of research in this field of knowledge.

The achievement of any science is largely determined by the development of its methodological apparatus, which makes it possible to obtain new scientific facts and, on their basis, to build a scientific picture of the world.

Methodology and methods of special psychology.

Methodology is the doctrine of the scientific method of cognition and the set of methods used in science, the field of knowledge; principles and methods of organizing and constructing theoretical and practical activities.

In the structure of methodological knowledge, four levels can be distinguished:

1) philosophical - represents the general principles of cognition and the categorical structure of science as a whole;

2) general scientific - contains theoretical concepts applicable to all or most scientific disciplines;

3) concrete scientific - represented by a set of methods, principles of research in a specific special scientific discipline;

4) technological - includes research methods and techniques that ensure the receipt of reliable empirical material and its processing.

In modern science, the term “methodology” is used in three meanings of different generality.

1. General methodology- general philosophical position, worldview interpretation of the foundations of the research and its results, basic principles of scientific and educational activity.

2. Private methodology- a set of methodological principles applied in a specific field of knowledge. A particular methodology is the implementation of certain philosophical principles in a certain scientific direction, in a specific scientific discipline. Thus, the general methodological prerequisite for behaviorism was the principles of the philosophy of positivism, and humanistic psychology - the principles of phenomenology. Therefore, the entire methodology of behaviorism is focused on the study of external behavior; The methodology of humanistic psychology, on the contrary, is aimed at understanding the inner world of a person and his experiences. L. S. Vygotsky applied the philosophical principle of historicism in studying the development of the child’s psyche; in biology, the same principle was implemented in the form of evolutionary teaching - the methodological basis of modern biological disciplines. General methodological patterns can be refracted in various sciences, but their establishment always occurs through special scientific research.

3. Methodology as a set of specific methodological research techniques, or techniques. The choice of specific techniques (or methods, if the word “method” is understood in the narrow sense) for special psychological and other studies always depends on general methodological guidelines.

According to the methodological hierarchy, no matter what experiments are carried out and no matter what tests are used, a certain methodology is always found in the interpretation of research results.

G. A. Kovalev (1987, 1989) proposed to distinguish the following paradigms for the analysis of the psyche and its regulation:

1. The "objective" or "reactive" paradigm according to which the psyche and the person as a whole are considered as a passive object of influence of external conditions and a product of these conditions.

2. “Subjective” or “actional” paradigm is based on a statement about the activity and individual selectivity of mental reflection of external influences, where the subject himself, rather, seems to have a transformative effect on the psychological information coming to him from the outside.

3. “Subject-subject”, or “dialogical.” paradigm, which where the psyche acts as an open and constantly interacting system that has internal and external regulatory loops. The psyche in this case is considered as a multidimensional and “intersubjective in nature formation” (Kovalev G. A., 1989, p. 9).

Modern psychological concepts are built in line with these paradigms, with preference given to the dialogic paradigm.

Principles of special psychology

In addition to its own categorical apparatus, each science must also have a system of explanatory principles, extremely general concepts, the use of which allows for a relatively consistent and consistent understanding and explanation of the phenomena being studied. It is these ideas that act as a certain coordinate system that help the researcher navigate huge amounts of empirical data, classify and interpret them.

Applied sciences, which include special psychology, as a rule, use a system of explanatory principles created within the framework of fundamental disciplines. Therefore, the principles formulated in general psychology are common to all branches of psychological science. For the sake of accuracy, it should be noted that the principles are not universal and operate within only one psychological school, within which they were developed. The postulates discussed below are formulated within the traditions of the Russian psychological school and are based on the ideas of L. S. Vygotsky, A. N. Leontiev, B. G. Ananyev, S. L. Rubinstein and others.

Methodology of special psychology based on the principles of dialectical materialism. They form the philosophical basis of ideas about the cultural and historical conditioning of the human psyche, the formation of mental processes under the influence of social factors, the indirect nature of these processes, and the leading role of speech in their organization.

The principle of determinism very important for understanding developmental disorders. The core of determinism is the position of the existence of causality, i.e. such a connection of phenomena in which one phenomenon (cause), under well-defined conditions, necessarily gives rise to another phenomenon (effect). Causality - a set of circumstances preceding the effect and causing it (Yaroshevsky M. G., 1972).

According to the principle of determinism, each developmental atypia is caused by a specific relationship of biological and social factors and is unique in the mechanisms of its occurrence. In a general psychological sense, the principle of determinism expresses the idea that mental reflection, its highest level (consciousness) is determined by the way of life and changes depending on external conditions.

Development principle represents the position according to which the psyche can be correctly understood only if it is considered in continuous development. All mental phenomena are constantly changing and developing in quantitative and qualitative terms. L. S. Vygotsky attaches great importance to the principle of development. He, however, spoke about the historical principle, but explained that historical study means the application of the category of development to the study of phenomena. To study something historically means to study it in movement, in development.

A correct characterization of any mental phenomenon is possible only if its characteristic features at a given moment and the prospects for subsequent changes are simultaneously clarified. Thus, the developmental principle focuses on a dynamic approach to describing developmental disorders (as opposed to a static approach). And it is clear why the philosophical doctrine of the essence of development, its driving forces and the laws of the emergence of new things became the starting point in the study of developmental disorders and the development of practical measures to eliminate them.

The principle of development involves the analysis of developmental disorders, taking into account the age stage at which the disorder arose and the previous deviations on which it was layered. In special psychology this principle is implemented primarily

in psychological diagnostics. When describing the qualitative and quantitative characteristics of a disorder, it is important to take into account its dynamics: a tendency to progression or stabilization.

With proper psychological examination of children with developmental disabilities, it is possible to predict the effectiveness of correctional and developmental education and the likelihood of spontaneous normalization.

Operating principle associated with the idea that the psyche is formed in activity. activity appears as a process that determines the formation of the human personality.

In this regard, it is important to specify activity approach to the analysis of mental development disorders. It is based on the idea that each mental function, developing in the process of activity, acquires a complex structure consisting of a number of links. Violation of the same function occurs in different ways: its nature depends on which link is defective. Then the central task of psychological research into developmental disorders is to identify its specifics. Here the principle of activity merges with the principle of qualitative analysis outlined below.

The principle of the unity of consciousness and activity is a statement that their unity is inseparable and that consciousness forms the internal plan of human activity. S. L. Rubinstein interprets this principle as a manifestation and formation consciousness in activity.

The relationship in the triad “nature - man - products of human activity” suggests that the most important factor in the formation of human consciousness is mastery of the world of objects created by humanity. It is activity that is the condition for the formation and sphere of application of human consciousness.

The principle of the unity of consciousness and activity implies that consciousness is the regulator of human behavior.

Along with philosophical and general psychological principles, special psychology is based on a number of principles that have more specific scientific significance.

The principle of complexity(from lat. complexus - connection, combination) dictates the need for cooperation between specialists from different fields in the examination of children with atypical development.

The principle of systemic structural-dynamic study. The highlighted principle is based on the ideas of B. G. Ananyev, B. F. Lomov and others about the systems approach in psychology. Each system presupposes the presence of a system-forming foundation that unites its constituent elements as relatively homogeneous. A necessary feature of a system is a certain connection between its constituent elements. According to the systems approach, any mental phenomenon has a diverse determination. Determinants can perform the function of causes, conditions, prerequisites and mediating links. The relationship between these connections is fluid: a determinant that plays the role of a prerequisite, in other cases may turn out to be a cause or a mediating link. Movement, or change of causal factors, is natural and constitutes a necessary condition for development. This is the general content of the principle of systemic structural-dynamic study.

Historically, this principle is associated with L. S. Vygotsky’s consideration of defects in the hierarchy: the identification of primary, secondary, tertiary defects. The views of L. S. Vygotsky largely predetermined the systematic approach to the study of an abnormal child, the need to search for connections between different stages of mental development and the obligation to study the influence of individual disorders on development as a whole. The principle of systemic structural-dynamic study requires determining the hierarchy in mental development disorders, as well as analyzing each of the components of the child’s activity (motivation, orientation, execution and control of the result).

Disturbances in mental processes can be caused by pathology of various parts of their structure and manifest themselves at various stages of mental activity. Therefore, when psychologically studying a child, it is important to establish not only disturbances in activity and mental processes, but also which links in their structure turned out to be defective. To find out the real reasons that cause difficulties in performing certain tasks, it is necessary to introduce changes in them in order to track which conditions complicate the task and which contribute to compensating for the defect. Such structural-dynamic analysis takes place, in particular, in the neuropsychological study of disorders.

Principle of qualitative analysis involves focusing the researcher's attention on the child's actions in completing the task and his behavior during the examination (methods of completing the task and making decisions, the type of errors, the child's attitude towards his mistakes and the remarks of adults) as opposed to focusing only on the result.

Qualitative analysis allows us to find out what level of organization of mental activity the defect is associated with. Such an analysis makes it possible to determine; whether a certain symptom is a sign of a primary disorder in mental development or a consequence of an existing defect.

Qualitative analysis does not oppose quantitative analysis; quantitative indicators only clarify it. Quantitative analysis, most often used in testing, is not informative enough in terms of prognosis, since it reflects developmental deviations only from the negative side, without giving an idea of the relationship of the defect to developmental reserves. In fact, quantitative and qualitative analysis are components of a single psychodiagnostic strategy; the results of each of them acquire value only when included in the overall information picture. Thus, both categories of psychological data can complement each other, providing a platform for solving practical problems (Fig. 12).

The process of analysis and interpretation of psychological facts requires reliance on more complex and generalized provisions. In the field of special psychology, such postulates are most clearly formulated by I. I. Mamaichuk. In contrast to those listed, they could be called specific methodological, that is, explanatory principles in relation to understanding the various phenomena of deviant development.

The first principle is ontogenetic. Its main meaning boils down to the fact that the main patterns of mental development remain fundamentally common for both normal and pathological cases. This classic position was formed by G. Ya. Troshinin and L. S. Vygotsky, but in this case the emphasis is placed on only one part of it. The identified violation cannot be considered in isolation. Its analysis and qualification (qualitative assessment) must be carried out in the context of a specific phase of age development with its characteristic structure of the psyche, typical interfunctional connections, features of the social situation of development, psychological new formations and the leading type of activity. Only in this way will the verified violation not look random, something foreign in relation to other elements of the psyche; only then will it be possible to reveal the mechanism of occurrence of this disorder and its structure. In other words, a violation is one of the properties of the development process itself, without which it is impossible to adequately understand its properties, even negative ones. By considering deviations in the context of a specific stage of age-related development, we not only understand its essence more fully, but also enrich our understanding of the development process in general.

Second principle - system-structural approach . The idea of a systemic structure of consciousness was first expressed by L. S. Vygotsky, who proposed viewing the psyche as a complex integral formation. The nature of the system's connections is not accidental. It is the connections, and not the elements they unite, that determine the essence of the system. Mental development occurs not due to the growth of individual elements (functions), but due to changes in the relationships between them. Therefore, deviations in the development of certain mental functions should be considered as a consequence of inadequate connections and relationships of this function with others, that is, a violation of the integrity of the entire system.

Thanks to the research of L. S. Vygotsky and A. R. Luria, the very concept of “function”, which was previously presented as something indecomposable and undifferentiated, was revised. In L. S. Vygotsky’s interpretation, the function received the status of a complex system, including many components, links and phases. From here it becomes clear that a simple statement of a violation of any element of the psyche without a preliminary study of its properties and an indication of which component of this structure is violated is essentially ignoring the systemic-structural approach and depriving psychological analysis of any content.

And finally, the third principle - level analysis . The formation of the psyche is carried out thanks to the inextricable unity of the processes of differentiation, integration and hierarchization (the consistent subordination of some functions to others). When analyzing dysontogenetic phenomenology, the psychologist is obliged to take into account the nature of the violation of hierarchical (level) connections. Thus, when a young and more complex function is disrupted, as a rule, a “release” of a more elementary function subordinate to it occurs, which can manifest itself in a decrease in the level of arbitrariness of its regulation.

several groups of patterns of mental development, namely:

a) basic and general, that is, the patterns according to which the psyche develops under normal and unfavorable conditions;

b) modal-nonspecific - a number of special patterns that are characteristic of all groups of children with developmental disabilities, regardless of the nature of the main disorder;

c) modality-specific - features characteristic of one group of children with developmental disabilities;

d) finally, the last group of patterns is associated with the establishment of dependences of the nature of mental development on the strength and severity of the pathogenic factor, for example, on the degree and time of hearing loss, on the duration of the state of emotional deprivation, etc.

In this case, we are talking about establishing individual typological characteristics within the same type of developmental deviation.

It should be especially noted that special psychology, beginning to develop as a multidisciplinary discipline, in the first stages of its formation primarily focused on the study of modality-specific patterns. Later, thanks to the research of L. S. Vygotsky, the focus began to gradually shift to the area of general patterns. And only very recently did attempts to study modal-nonspecific patterns begin. This historical sequence is connected with one paradox of special psychology, which was first noticed by V. I. Lubovsky. Since modality-specific patterns began to be studied earlier, a strong belief was created that this particular type of pattern was better studied than others. Analysis of the empirical material, and most importantly, the method of obtaining it, led V.I. Lubovsky to the opposite conclusion. For decades, scientists thought they were studying modality-specific patterns, but in reality they were studying modality-nonspecific patterns. This was due to a common flaw in the experimental strategy. When conducting an experiment, the researcher, as a rule, compared the results obtained on one group of children with developmental disabilities with a group of normally developing children of a similar age. The identified differences were considered to be characteristic only of this type of deviation. Subsequent studies showed that in most cases they are typical simultaneously for several groups of children with developmental disabilities and are essentially modality-nonspecific. Both of these patterns represent only a peculiar manifestation of the general, basic laws of mental development, characteristic of both cases of normality and pathology. The study of different types of patterns, as a task of special psychology, is also associated with the study of compensatory mechanisms that allow the human consciousness to continue to realize its main functions in conditions of dysontogenesis.

Let's turn to the basic principles of psychological examination of children with various forms of developmental disorders. The most common one is comparative principle, meaning which is obvious: empirical data obtained in an experiment or observation are assessed as scientifically valid only if they are compared with similar factual material reproduced on a comparable sample of normally developing children. This condition is necessary, but not sufficient. The comparative principle also involves comparing data obtained on a specific group of children with similar results from studies conducted on children with a different form of impairment.

Despite all its formal simplicity, the technical implementation of this principle can be fraught with methodological difficulties. It is possible to correlate the results obtained in a comparative study only if the research procedure used in working with different groups of children is identical. Otherwise, such a comparison is incorrect. Achieving this kind of methodological identity can be very difficult, because the same specific technique, suitable for working with one group of children, may be completely invalid in relation to another. The introduction of modifications casts doubt on the very possibility of comparing results.

Another principle is dynamic represents logical continuation of comparative. Adequate information about the nature of a particular deviation can be obtained as a result of conducting multiple time slices. The nature of the deviation, its originality and quality are reproducible only in dynamics.

Principle integrated approach is as follows: in a psychological examination of children with disabilities, especially when interpreting the results obtained, the psychologist is obliged to take into account clinical data (neurological and somatic status, state of vision, hearing, speech, motor sphere, the possibility of a hereditary nature of the disorders, etc.). This, in turn, places high demands on his clinical erudition, which allows him to consider his own factual material not in isolation, but in a clinical context. Psychological data are also supplemented by the use of so-called paraclinical techniques, which have been increasingly used in the field of special psychology in recent years. We are talking about psychophysiological ones: electroencephalography, magnetoencephalography, positive emission tomography of the brain, oculography, electromyography, etc.

Principle holistic, systemic study“involves, first of all, the detection of not just individual manifestations of mental development disorders, but connections between them, determining their causes, establishing a hierarchy of detected deficiencies or deviations in mental development...” (Lubovsky V.I. Psychological problems in diagnosing abnormal development of children. M., 1985, p. 51).

The implementation of this principle is only possible in qualitative analysis obtained empirical facts. Focus on qualitative analysis is another principle of studying children with developmental disabilities, but it does not deny the possibility of using quantitative comparisons using various statistical processing procedures - correlation, factor, cluster, variance analysis, etc.

Consistent implementation of the listed principles in combination with a clearly defined research task (goal), as well as a correctly formulated hypothesis, allows us to hope for the collection of adequate empirical results.

Conducting an experiment, obtaining empirical data in quantitative and qualitative form, and further statistical processing - all these are just preliminary stages of the main phase of any scientific research - analysis of the extracted material. Its main content boils down to the answer to the question of what the information received says about this or that aspect of the psychological reality being studied. The analytical direction is set by a clearly defined problem, that is, the main research question and the presence of a hypothesis (or hypotheses) of assumptions, the correctness or error of which is tested in this research work.

The principles we have named relate to a greater extent to the specifics of organizing and conducting research, and therefore can be designated as specific methodological.

The two groups of principles outlined above: concrete methodological and concrete methodological - form the theoretical foundation of special psychology, along with the doctrine of the essence and structure of deviant development.

Methods of special psychology can be divided into three large groups: research methods, prevention methods and influence methods. In turn, research methods (see Fig. 13) consist of information collection methods And methods for its processing.

The methods of special psychology largely coincide with similar methods of developmental psychology that studies normal development. But they also have their own specifics. Here we will focus only on the general characteristics of these methods.

Atypical development, which takes different forms, is rightfully the object of study in many disciplines. The determination of developmental deviations by both biological and social factors implies different approaches to the study of these deviations and, accordingly, a variety of diagnostic procedures.

Despite the external similarity of the clinical picture of some mental development disorders, they may differ in essence. For the purpose of differential diagnosis, it is necessary to study the psychological mechanisms of symptom formation. Initially, this study was based on pathopsychological analysis mental activity of the child. The subject of study by pathopsychologists was mainly disorders of the child’s cognitive activity: disorders of perception, memory, and thinking. Pathopsychological analysis has been and is widely used in psychiatric clinics, as well as in the selection of children for auxiliary schools.

In special psychology, pathopsychological analysis was used in the study structures of cognitive activity mentally retarded children, allowed to decide tasks of their selection to auxiliary schools. As the range of educational institutions for children with abnormal development (in the terminology of those years) increased, this method of analysis extended to other mental disorders, including speech disorders. This trend was largely determined by the medical and pedagogical approach in defectology, focused on identifying factors of mental activity in children with developmental delays that specifically influence educational influences. (Korobeinikov I. A, 2002).

And yet, the study of mental development disorders from the standpoint of pathopsychology was mainly clinical focus- the cause of these disorders was considered to be a “defect”, which was understood in the traditional defectological and/or psychiatric sense.

In the last decade, it has developed neuropsychological analysis developmental disorders, developed by the scientific school of A. R. Luria. The focus of researchers is on studying the interaction between the brain and the psyche. They proceed from the fact that when certain brain structures are damaged or unformed, the corresponding components of mental activity are lost.

The main subject of study of child neuropsychology, as well as pathopsychology, is disorders of the child’s cognitive activity. However, syndromic neuropsychological analysis has different dominants compared to pathopsychological analysis. Neuropsychological analysis is aimed at identifying those factors, which underlie primary mental disorders (primary defects) and derivative disorders of mental functions (secondary defects), thereby cognitive processes are considered in their relationship and their relationship to the brain.

The neuropsychological research method, built on the principle of qualitative analysis of mental disorders, allows reveal the structure of intellectual activity, shortcomings in the development of thought processes and the reasons that determine them, as well as help establish the potential capabilities of a person.

The method allows you to compare disorders from the point of view of the primary and secondary nature of their occurrence and to describe the system-dynamic restructuring of mental activity in the process of ontogenesis from the standpoint of its cerebral support.