The Byzantine Empire and the Eastern Christian World. The Byzantine Empire and Eastern Christendom
Byzantine Empire, Byzantium, Eastern Roman Empire (395-1453) - a state formed in 395 as a result of the final division of the Roman Empire after the death of Emperor Theodosius I into the western and eastern parts.
The permanent capital and civilizational center of the Byzantine Empire was Constantinople, one of the largest cities of the medieval world. The empire controlled its largest possessions under Emperor Justinian I (527-565), regaining for several decades a significant part of the coastal territories of the former western provinces of Rome and the position of the most powerful Mediterranean power. Subsequently, under the onslaught of numerous enemies, the state gradually lost its lands. After the Slavic, Lombard, Visigothic and Arab conquests, the empire occupied only the territory of Greece and Asia Minor.
In Christianity, diverse currents fought and collided: Arianism, Nestorianism, Monophysitism. While in the West the popes, beginning with Leo the Great (440-461), established the papal monarchy, in the East the patriarchs of Alexandria, especially Cyril (422-444) and Dioscorus (444-451), tried to establish the papal throne in Alexandria. In addition, as a result of these unrest, old national feuds and separatist tendencies surfaced. Political interests and goals were closely intertwined with the religious conflict.
Under Justinian, the emperor himself established the official confession, and pagans, Samaritans and heretics were forced to convert to the official confession under threat of deprivation of civil rights and even the death penalty.
In 907, the Russian prince Oleg made a successful campaign against Constantinople and concluded the first Russian-Byzantine trade agreement. In 941, Prince Igor was defeated under the walls of Constantinople, but after that peaceful relations resumed. The new ruler of Rus', Princess Olga, paid a visit to the capital of Byzantium and was baptized there. The princess's son, Prince Svyatoslav, fought with Byzantium for Bulgaria in 970-971, being defeated by Emperor John Tzimiskes [source not specified 604 days].
Under his son, the Kiev prince Vladimir, Byzantium managed to baptize Rus' in 988, in return giving Vladimir the Porphyrogenitus Princess Anna, the sister of Emperor Vasily II, as his wife. A military alliance was concluded between Byzantium and the Old Russian state, which was in force until the 1040s. Along with Latinized Christianity, Byzantine culture began to penetrate and spread into Rus'.
On May 30, 1453, at eight o'clock in the morning, Mehmed II solemnly entered the capital and ordered the central cathedral of the city - Hagia Sophia - to be converted into a mosque. The last remnants of the once great empire - Morea and Trebizond - fell under Ottoman rule in 1460 and 1461 respectively. The Ottoman Empire moved towards Europe.
In 1459, Pope Pius II convened a council in Mantua to discuss the Crusade to liberate Constantinople. But the trip never took place.
Abstract on the topic:
Byzantine Empire and
Eastern Christian world.
Completed by: Kushtukov A.A.
Checked by: Tsybzhitova A.B.
Introduction 3
History of Byzantium 4
Division into Eastern and Western Roman Empires 4
Becoming an independent Byzantium 4
Justinian Dynasty 5
The beginning of a new dynasty and the strengthening of the empire 7
Isaurian Dynasty 7
9th – 11th centuries 8
XII – XIII centuries 10
Invasion of the Turks. Fall of Byzantium 11
Byzantine culture 14
Formation of Christianity
as a philosophical-religious system 14
The time of greatest power and
the highest point of cultural development. 18
Conclusion 24
Literature 25
Introduction.
In my essay I would like to talk about Byzantium. Byzantine Empire (Roman Empire, 476-1453) - Eastern Roman Empire. The name “Byzantine Empire” (after the city of Byzantium, on the site of which the Roman emperor Constantine the Great founded Constantinople at the beginning of the 4th century) was given to the state in the works of Western European historians after its fall. The Byzantines themselves called themselves Romans - in Greek “Romeans”, and their power - “Romean”. Western sources also call the Byzantine Empire "Romania". For much of its history, many of its Western contemporaries called it the "Empire of the Greeks" due to the dominance of its Greek population and culture. In ancient Rus' it was also usually called the “Greek Kingdom.” Byzantium made a great contribution to the development of culture in Europe during the Middle Ages. In the history of world culture, Byzantium has a special, outstanding place. In artistic creativity, Byzantium gave the medieval world lofty images of literature and art, which were distinguished by noble elegance of forms, imaginative vision of thought, sophistication of aesthetic thinking, and depth of philosophical thought. In terms of its power of expressiveness and deep spirituality, Byzantium stood ahead of all the countries of medieval Europe for many centuries. The direct heir of the Greco-Roman world and the Hellenistic East, Byzantium has always remained the center of a unique and truly brilliant culture.
History of Byzantium. Division into the Eastern and Western Roman Empires
Division into the Eastern and Western Roman Empires. In 330, the Roman Emperor Constantine the Great declared the city of Byzantium his capital, renaming it Constantinople. The need to move the capital was caused, first of all, by the remoteness of Rome from the tense eastern and north-eastern borders of the empire; it was possible to organize defense from Constantinople much more quickly and efficiently than from Rome. The final division of the Roman Empire into Eastern and Western occurred after the death of Theodosius the Great in 395. The main difference between Byzantium and the Western Roman Empire was the predominance of Greek culture on its territory. The differences grew, and over the course of two centuries the state finally acquired its own individual appearance.
Becoming an independent Byzantium
The formation of Byzantium as an independent state can be attributed to the period 330-518. During this period, numerous barbarian, mainly Germanic tribes penetrated across the borders on the Danube and Rhine into Roman territory. Some were small groups of settlers attracted by the security and prosperity of the empire, while others undertook military campaigns against Byzantium, and soon their pressure became unstoppable. Taking advantage of Rome's weakness, the Germans moved from raiding to seizing land, and in 476 the last emperor of the Western Roman Empire was overthrown. The situation in the east was no less difficult, and one could expect a similar ending, after in 378 the Visigoths won the famous battle of Adrianople, Emperor Valens was killed and King Alaric devastated all of Greece. But soon Alaric went west to Spain and Gaul, where the Goths founded their state, and the danger on their part for Byzantium had passed. In 441, the Goths were replaced by the Huns. Attila started war several times, or only by paying a large tribute was it possible to prevent his further attacks. In the Battle of Nations in 451, Attila was defeated, and his state soon disintegrated. In the second half of the 5th century, danger came from the Ostrogoths - Theodoric ravaged Macedonia, threatened Constantinople, but he also went west, conquering Italy and founding his state on the ruins of Rome. Numerous Christian heresies - Arianism, Nestorianism, Monophysitism - also greatly destabilized the situation in the country. While in the West the popes, starting with Leo the Great (440-461), asserted the papal monarchy, in the East the patriarchs of Alexandria, especially Cyril (422-444) and Dioscorus (444-451), tried to establish the papal throne in Alexandria. Moreover, as a result of these unrest, old national divisions and still persistent separatist tendencies surfaced; Thus, political interests and goals were closely intertwined with the religious conflict. From 502, the Persians resumed their onslaught in the east, the Slavs and Avars began raids south of the Danube. Internal unrest reached its extreme limits, and in the capital there was an intense struggle between the “green” and “blue” parties (according to the colors of the chariot teams). Finally, the strong memory of the Roman tradition, which supported the idea of the need for the unity of the Roman world, constantly turned minds to the West. To get out of this state of instability, a powerful hand was needed, a clear policy with precise and definite plans. By 550, Justinian I was pursuing this policy.
Dynasty of Justinian.
IN
The beginning of a new dynasty and the strengthening of the empire.
In 610, the son of the Carthaginian exarch Heraclius overthrew Emperor Phocas and founded a new dynasty, which turned out to be able to withstand the dangers threatening the state. This was one of the most difficult periods in the history of Byzantium - the Persians conquered Egypt and threatened Constantinople, the Avars, Slavs and Lombards attacked the borders from all sides. Heraclius won a series of victories over the Persians, transferred the war to their territory, after which the death of Shah Khosrow II and a series of uprisings forced them renounce all conquests and make peace. But the severe exhaustion of both sides in this war prepared fertile ground for Arab conquests. In 634, Caliph Omar invaded Syria; over the next 40 years, Egypt, North Africa, Syria, Palestine, and Upper Mesopotamia were lost, and often the population of these areas, exhausted by wars, considered the Arabs, who at first significantly reduced taxes, to be their liberators. The Arabs created a fleet and even besieged Constantinople. But the new emperor, Constantine IV Pogonatus (668-685), repelled their onslaught. Despite the five-year siege of Constantinople (673-678) by land and sea, the Arabs were unable to capture it. The Greek fleet, which was given superiority by the recent invention of “Greek fire,” forced the Muslim squadrons to retreat and defeated them in the waters of Syllaeum. On land, the troops of the caliphate were defeated in Asia. From this crisis the empire emerged more united and monolithic, the national composition became more homogeneous, religious differences were mostly a thing of the past, as Monophysitism and Arianism became widespread in the now lost Egypt and North Africa. By the end of the 7th century, the territory of Byzantium no longer constituted more than a third of Justinian's empire. Its core consisted of lands inhabited by Greeks or Hellenized tribes who spoke Greek. In the 7th century, significant reforms in government were carried out - instead of dioceses and exarchates, the empire was divided into themes subordinate to strategists. The new national composition of the state led to the fact that the Greek language became official. In the administration, ancient Latin titles either disappear or are Hellenized, and their place is taken by new names - logothetes, strategoi, eparchs, drungaria. In an army dominated by Asian and Armenian elements, Greek becomes the language in which orders are given. And although the Byzantine Empire continued to be called the Roman Empire until its last day, nevertheless, the Latin language fell out of use.
Isaurian dynasty
At the beginning of the 8th century, temporary stabilization was again replaced by a series of crises - wars with the Bulgarians, Arabs, continuous uprisings... Finally, Leo the Isaurian, who ascended the throne under the name of Emperor Leo III, managed to stop the collapse of the state and inflicted a decisive defeat on the Arabs. After half a century of rule, the two first Isaurians made the empire rich and prosperous, despite the plague that devastated it in 747 and despite the unrest caused by iconoclasm. The support of iconoclasm by the emperors of the Isaurian dynasty was due to both religious and political factors. Many Byzantines at the beginning of the 8th century were dissatisfied with the excess of superstition and especially the worship of icons, belief in their miraculous properties, and the connection with them of human actions and interests. At the same time, the emperors sought to limit the growing power of the church. In addition, by refusing to venerate icons, the Saurian emperors hoped to get closer to the Arabs, who did not recognize images. The policy of iconoclasm led to discord and unrest, while simultaneously increasing the schism in relations with the Roman Church. The restoration of icon veneration occurred only at the end of the 8th century thanks to Empress Irene, the first female empress, but already at the beginning of the 9th century the policy of iconoclasm was continued.
In 800, Charlemagne announced the restoration of the Western Roman Empire, which was a painful humiliation for Byzantium. At the same time, the Baghdad Caliphate intensified its attack in the east. Emperor Leo V the Armenian (813-820) and two emperors of the Phrygian dynasty - Michael II (820-829) and Theophilus (829-842) - renewed the policy of iconoclasm. Once again, for thirty years, the empire found itself in the grip of unrest. The treaty of 812, which recognized Charlemagne as emperor, meant serious territorial losses in Italy, where Byzantium retained only Venice and lands in the south of the peninsula. The war with the Arabs, renewed in 804, led to two serious defeats: the capture of the island of Crete by Muslim pirates (826), who began to devastate the eastern Mediterranean with almost impunity, and the conquest of Sicily and North African Arabs (827), who captured the city of Palermo in 831. The danger from the Bulgarians was especially formidable, since Khan Krum expanded the borders of his empire from Gema to the Carpathians. Nikephoros tried to defeat him by invading Bulgaria, but on the way back he was defeated and died (811), and the Bulgarians, having again captured Adrianople, appeared at the walls of Constantinople (813). Only the victory of Leo V at Mesemvria (813) saved the empire. The period of Smut ended in 867 with the rise to power of the Macedonian dynasty. Basil I the Macedonian (867-886), Roman Lekapin (919-944), Nikephoros Phocas (963-969), John Tzimiskes (969-976), Basil II (976-1025) - emperors and usurpers - provided Byzantium with 150 years of prosperity and power . Bulgaria, Crete, and southern Italy were conquered, and successful military campaigns were carried out against the Arabs deep into Syria. The borders of the empire expanded to the Euphrates and Tigris, Armenia and Iberia entered the sphere of Byzantine influence, John Tzimiskes reached Jerusalem. In the 9th-11th centuries, relations with Kievan Rus acquired great importance for Byzantium. After the siege of Constantinople by the Kyiv prince Oleg (907), Byzantium was forced to conclude a trade agreement with Russia, which contributed to the development of trade along the great route from the “Varangians to the Greeks.” At the end of the 10th century, Byzantium fought with Russia (Kiev prince Svyatoslav Igorevich) for Bulgaria and won. Under the Kiev prince Vladimir Svyatoslavich, an alliance was concluded between Byzantium and Kievan Rus. Vasily II gave his sister Anna in marriage to the Kyiv prince Vladimir. At the end of the 10th century in Rus', Christianity according to the Eastern rite was adopted from Byzantium. In 1019, having conquered Bulgaria, Armenia and Iberia, Basil II celebrated with a great triumph the greatest strengthening of the empire since the times preceding the Arab conquests. The picture was completed by the brilliant state of finances and the flourishing of culture. However, at the same time, the first signs of weakness began to appear, which was expressed by increasing feudal fragmentation. The nobility, which controlled vast territories and resources, often successfully opposed themselves to the central government. The decline began after the death of Vasily II, under his brother Constantine VIII (1025-1028) and under the daughters of the latter - first under Zoya and her three successive husbands - Roman III ( 1028-1034), Michael IV (1034-1041), Constantine Monomakh (1042-1054), with whom she shared the throne (Zoe died in 1050), and then under Theodore (1054-1056). The weakening manifested itself even more sharply after the end of the Macedonian dynasty. By the middle of the 11th century, the main danger was approaching from the east - the Seljuk Turks. As a result of a military coup, Isaac Comnenus (1057-1059) ascended the throne; after his abdication, Constantine X Ducas (1059-1067) became emperor. Then Roman IV Diogenes (1067-1071) came to power, who was overthrown by Michael VII Ducas (1071-1078); as a result of a new uprising, the crown went to Nicephorus Botaniatus (1078-1081). During these short reigns, anarchy grew and the internal and external crisis from which the empire suffered became more and more severe. Italy was lost by the middle of the 11th century under the onslaught of the Normans, but the main danger loomed from the east - in 1071 Romanos IV Diogenes was defeated by the Seljuk Turks near Manazkert (Armenia), and Byzantium was never able to recover from this defeat. Over the next two decades, the Turks occupied all of Anatolia; The Empire could not create an army large enough to stop them. In desperation, Emperor Alexius I Komnenos (1081-1118) asked the Pope in 1095 to help him obtain an army from Western Christendom. Relations with the West were predetermined by the events of 1204 (the capture of Constantinople by the crusaders and the collapse of the country), and the uprisings of the feudal lords undermined the last strength of the country. In 1081, the Komnenos dynasty (1081-1204) - representatives of the feudal aristocracy - came to the throne. The Turks remained in Iconium (Konya Sultanate); in the Balkans, with the help of the expanding Hungary, the Slavic peoples created almost independent states; Finally, the West also posed a serious danger in light of the aggressive aspirations of Byzantium, the ambitious political plans generated by the first crusade, and the economic claims of Venice.
XII-XIII centuries.
Under the Comnenians, the main role in the Byzantine army began to be played by heavily armed cavalry (cataphracts) and mercenary troops from foreigners. The strengthening of the state and army allowed the Komnenos to repel the Norman offensive in the Balkans, conquer a significant part of Asia Minor from the Seljuks, and establish sovereignty over Antioch. Manuel I forced Hungary to recognize the sovereignty of Byzantium (1164) and established his power in Serbia. But overall the situation continued to be difficult. The behavior of Venice was especially dangerous - the former purely Greek city became a rival and enemy of the empire, creating strong competition for its trade. In 1176, the Byzantine army was defeated by the Turks at Myriokephalon. On all borders, Byzantium was forced to go on the defensive. Byzantium's policy towards the crusaders was to bind their leaders with vassal bonds and return territories in the east with their help, but this did not bring much success. Relations between the Crusaders constantly deteriorated. The Second Crusade, led by the French king Louis VII and the German king Conrad III, was organized after the conquest of Edessa by the Seljuks in 1144. The Komnenos dreamed of restoring their power over Rome, either through force or through papacy, and destroying the Western Empire, the existence of which had always seemed to them to be a usurpation of theirs. right Manuel I especially tried to fulfill these dreams. It seemed that Manuel had gained the empire incomparable glory throughout the world and made Constantinople the center of European politics; but when he died in 1180, Byzantium found itself ruined and hated by the Latins, ready to attack it at any moment. At the same time, a serious internal crisis was brewing in the country. After the death of Manuel I, a popular uprising broke out in Constantinople (1181), caused by dissatisfaction with the policies of the government, which patronized Italian merchants, as well as Western European knights who entered the service of the emperors. The country was experiencing a deep economic crisis: feudal fragmentation and the virtual independence of provincial rulers from the central government intensified, cities fell into decay, and the army and navy weakened. The collapse of the empire began. In 1187 Bulgaria fell away; in 1190 Byzantium was forced to recognize the independence of Serbia.
When Enrico Dandolo became the Doge of Venice in 1192, the idea arose that the best way to both resolve the crisis and satisfy the accumulated hatred of the Latins, and to ensure the interests of Venice in the East would be the conquest of the Byzantine Empire. The hostility of the pope, the harassment of Venice, the embitterment of the entire Latin world - all this taken together predetermined the fact that the fourth crusade (1202-1204) turned against Constantinople instead of Palestine. Exhausted, weakened by the onslaught of the Slavic states, Byzantium was unable to resist the crusaders. In 1204, the Crusader army captured Constantinople. Byzantium broke up into a number of states - the Latin Empire and the Achaean Principality, created in the territories captured by the crusaders, and the Nicaea, Trebizond and Epirus empires - which remained under the control of the Greeks. The Latins suppressed Greek culture in Byzantium, and the dominance of Italian traders prevented the revival of Byzantine cities. The position of the Latin Empire was very precarious - the hatred of the Greeks and the attacks of the Bulgarians greatly weakened it, so that in 1261, the emperor of the Nicaean Empire, Michael Palaiologos, with the support of the Greek population of the Latin Empire, recaptured Constantinople and defeated the Latin Empire, announced the restoration of the Byzantine Empire. In 1337 Epirus joined it. But the Achaean Principality - the only viable Crusader entity in Greece - survived until the conquest of the Ottoman Turks, as did the Empire of Trebizond. It was no longer possible to restore the Byzantine Empire intact. Michael VIII Palaiologos (1261-1282) tried to accomplish this, and although he failed to fully realize his aspirations, nevertheless, his efforts, practical talents and flexible mind make him the last significant emperor of Byzantium.
Invasion of the Turks. Fall of Byzantium.
The conquests of the Ottoman Turks began to threaten the very existence of the country. Murad I (1359-1389) conquered Thrace (1361), which John V Palaiologos was forced to recognize for him (1363); then he captured Philippopolis, and soon Adrianople, where he moved his capital (1365). Constantinople, isolated, surrounded, cut off from the rest of the regions, awaited behind its walls a mortal blow that seemed inevitable. Meanwhile, the Ottomans completed their conquest of the Balkan Peninsula. At Maritsa they defeated the southern Serbs and Bulgarians (1371); they founded their colonies in Macedonia and began to threaten Thessalonica (1374); they invaded Albania (1386), defeated the Serbian Empire and, after the Battle of Kosovo, turned Bulgaria into a Turkish pashalyk (1393). John V Palaiologos was forced to recognize himself as a vassal of the Sultan, pay him tribute and supply him with contingents of troops to capture Philadelphia (1391) - the last stronghold that Byzantium still owned in Asia Minor.
Bayazid I (1389-1402) acted even more energetically in relation to the Byzantine Empire. He blocked the capital from all sides (1391-1395), and when the West's attempt to save Byzantium at the Battle of Nicopolis (1396) failed, he attempted to storm Constantinople (1397) and at the same time invaded the Morea. The Mongol invasion and the crushing defeat inflicted by Timur on the Turks at Angora (Ankara) (1402) gave the empire another twenty years of respite. But in
Culture of Byzantium.
Formation of Christianity as a philosophical and religious system.
The first centuries of the existence of the Byzantine state can be
considered as the most important stage in the formation of a worldview
Byzantine society, based on the traditions of pagan Hellenism
and principles of Christianity.
The formation of Christianity as a philosophical and religious system was a complex and lengthy process. Christianity absorbed many philosophical and religious teachings of that time. Christian dogma developed under the strong influence of Middle Eastern religious teachings, Judaism, and Manichaeism. Christianity itself was not only a syncretic religious teaching, but also a synthetic philosophical and religious system, an important component of which were ancient philosophical teachings. This, perhaps, explains to some extent the fact that Christianity not only fought against ancient philosophy, but also used it for its own purposes. In place of the intransigence of Christianity with everything that bore the stigma of paganism, comes a compromise between the Christian and ancient worldviews.
The most educated and far-sighted Christian theologians understood the need to master the entire arsenal of pagan culture in order to use it in the creation of philosophical concepts. In the works of Basil of Caesarea, Gregory of Nyssa and Gregory of Nazianzus, in the speeches of John Chrysostom, one can see a combination of the ideas of early Christianity with Neoplatonic philosophy, sometimes a paradoxical interweaving
rhetorical ideas with new ideological content. Thinkers such as
Basil of Caesarea, Gregory of Nyssa and Gregory of Nazianzus,
lay the actual foundation of Byzantine philosophy. Their
philosophical constructs are deeply rooted in the history of Hellenic
thinking
In the transitional era of the death of the slave system and
formation of feudal society, fundamental changes occur in all
spheres of spiritual life of Byzantium. A new aesthetic is born, a new
a system of spiritual and moral values that is more appropriate
mindset and emotional needs of medieval man.
Patriotic literature, biblical cosmography, liturgical
poetry, monastic stories, world chronicles, permeated with a religious worldview, little by little take possession of the minds of Byzantine society and replace ancient culture.
The Byzantine Empire is rightly considered the direct successor of the Roman Empire. It existed for more than a millennium, and even after the attack of the barbarians, which was successfully repelled, it remained the most powerful Christian state for several centuries.
Main features of the Byzantine Empire
First of all, it should be said that the name “Byzantium” did not appear immediately - until the 15th century, this state was called the Eastern Roman Empire. This empire was located in the east of the Mediterranean, and during its heyday it had lands in Europe, Asia and even Africa.
Thanks to the Mediterranean climate, agriculture and cattle breeding in the country developed and flourished. Also, mineral resources such as gold, tin, copper, silver and more were actively mined on its territory. But what was important was not only its ability to provide itself with everything necessary, but also the fact that the empire had a very advantageous location: for example, the Great Silk Road to China passed through it. The route of incense was 11 thousand kilometers long, it passed through many important points and brought the state a considerable part of its wealth.
The Byzantine Empire and the Eastern Christian world were connected by an equally famous route - “from the Varangians to the Greeks,” which began in Scandinavia and, passing through Eastern Europe, led to Byzantium.
The capital of the Byzantine Empire was Constantinople.
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Rice. 1. Constantinople.
The population of the state was very high - no other European country could boast of so many people. For example, in the Middle Ages, 35 million people lived in Byzantium - a very large number for those times. The bulk of the population spoke Greek and were carriers of Hellenic culture, but in Byzantium there was a place for Syrians, Arabs, Egyptians, and representatives of other ethnic groups.
Two traditions in the life of the Byzantines: ancient and Christian
Byzantium preserved its ancient heritage longer than the states of Western Europe, since it became the cornerstone of its state structure. Like the Romans, the Byzantines had two favorite entertainments: theatrical performances and equestrian competitions.
However, by the 8th century, the Christian tradition became dominant: all genres of art glorified God and his devotees. Thus, the most widespread genre of literature is the lives of saints, and painting is iconography. Outstanding figures of this period are Gregory the Theologian, John Chrysostom and Basil the Great.
Rice. 2. John Chrysostom.
It was in Byzantium that the cross-domed type of church arose, which would later become the main architectural direction in the construction of churches in Ancient Rus'. Churches were decorated with mosaics - this is another characteristic feature of the Byzantine church tradition.
Rice. 3. A sample of Byzantine mosaic.
Interesting: Education in Byzantium was very developed and accessible to all - even a poor person could go to school and then apply for a government position, which was both honorable and profitable.
What have we learned?
How many centuries did the Byzantine Empire last and when did its name, which is accepted now, appear, what main features did it have, and what city was its capital. The features of its culture, which mixed ancient and Christian traditions, were also examined. Particular attention is paid to the advantageousness of its geographical location: the route from the Varangians to the Greeks and the Great Silk Road ran through Byzantium. Special attention is also paid to architecture and education, as well as literature and the way of life of the Byzantines in general: its characteristic features are listed.
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Detailed solution to paragraph § 4 on the history of Russia in the world for 10th grade students, authors O.V. Volobuev, V.A. Klokov, M.V. Ponomarev, V.A. Rogozhkin Basic level 2013
QUESTIONS
1. What was the influence of the ancient heritage on the history and culture of Byzantium?
The influence of the ancient heritage on Byzantium was expressed in the use of Roman traditions in decorating cities (for example, Constantinople), and entertaining the inhabitants of Byzantium (hippodrome, theatrical performances, etc.). Byzantine scholars studied and rewrote the works of ancient authors, many of which have survived to this day. The works of famous ancient historians were the model for the Byzantines. Their example was followed by Procopius of Caesarea (VI century), who wrote “The History of Justinian’s Wars with the Persians, Vandals and Goths.”
2. What was the role of the imperial government and the Orthodox Church in the life of the Byzantines?
The Byzantines believed that God himself entrusted the emperor with supreme power over his subjects, and that is why the ruler is responsible before the Lord for their destinies. The emperor had almost unlimited power: he appointed officials and military leaders, controlled the collection of taxes, and personally commanded the army. Imperial power was often not inherited, but was seized by a successful military leader or nobleman.
The head of the Western church successfully claimed not only spiritual power, but also secular power. In the east, the Emperor and the Patriarch were mutually dependent on each other. The emperor appointed a patriarch, which recognized the role of the emperor as an instrument of God. But the emperor was crowned king by the patriarch - in Byzantium it was believed that it was the act of wedding that elevated one to imperial dignity.
3. What was the difference between the Eastern and Western Christian worlds?
The differences between the Eastern and Western Christian worlds were: in Byzantium the power of the emperor was not limited, there was no feudal fragmentation and there was no question of centralization of the state, the process of enslaving the peasants was slower, city self-government did not develop, the urban population was never able to achieve recognition of their rights by the state and defend privileges like the townspeople of Western Europe. In Byzantium there was no strong church authority that could lay claim to secular power, as was the case with the Pope.
4. How were the relations between Byzantium and the Slavs?
The Byzantine heritage played a key role in the formation of the statehood and culture of the Slavic states, especially the Russian state. From Byzantium came political organization, church rites and services, book culture and writing, architectural traditions, etc.
TASKS
1. Write a story about the culture of Byzantium.
Byzantium existed from 395 to 1453. In 330, on the site of the ancient Greek settlement of Byzantium, the new capital of the Roman Empire, Constantinople, was founded, named after Emperor Constantine. In 395, the empire split into two parts - Western and Eastern, and the latter - the Eastern Roman Empire - subsequently became known as Byzantium. moreover, after the empire itself ceased to exist. This name was given to it by European thinkers of the New Age with the intention of excommunicating Byzantium from ties with Greco-Roman culture and including it entirely in the “Dark Middle Ages” of the Eastern type.
However, the Byzantines themselves would not agree with such a point of view. They called themselves “Romans”, i.e. the Romans, and its capital Constantinople - the “second Rome”, with good reason.
Byzantium became a worthy heir to ancient culture. She successfully continued the further development of the best achievements of Roman civilization. The new capital - Constantinople - jealously and not without success competed with Rome, quickly becoming one of the most beautiful cities of that time. It had large squares decorated with triumphal columns with statues of emperors, beautiful temples and churches, grandiose aqueducts, magnificent baths, and impressive defensive structures. Along with the capital, many other cultural centers developed in Byzantium - Alexandria. Antioch, Nicaea. Ravenna, Thessaloniki.
Byzantine culture became the first fully Christian culture. It was in Byzantium that the formation of Christianity was completed, and for the first time it acquired a complete, classical form in its orthodox, or Orthodox, version. A huge role in this was played by John of Damascus (c. 675-before 753), an outstanding theologian, philosopher and poet, author of the fundamental philosophical and theological work “The Source of Knowledge.” He completed and systematized Greek patristics, the so-called teaching of the “Church Fathers,” thanks to which Christianity rose to the level of a real theory. All subsequent theology is, to one degree or another, based on the ideas and concepts of John of Damascus. He is also the creator of church hymns.
A huge contribution to the formation and establishment of Orthodox Christianity was also made by John Chrysostom (c. 350–407), an outstanding representative of the art of church eloquence, Bishop of Constantinople. His sermons, eulogies and psalms were a huge success. He became famous as a passionate denouncer of all injustice, a fighter for the implementation of the ascetic ideal. John Chrysostom placed active mercy above all miracles.
Continuing and developing the theory of Roman law, Byzantine scholars developed their own original concept, known as Byzantine law. Its basis was the famous Codification of Justinian (482-565), the Byzantine emperor who was the first to give a systematic presentation of the new law. Byzantine law found application in many European and Asian countries of that era.
At the same time, Byzantine culture was significantly influenced by neighboring eastern countries, especially Iran. This influence affected almost all areas of social and cultural life. In general, the culture of Byzantium was a real crossroads of Western and Eastern cultures, a kind of bridge between East and West.
The evolution of Byzantine culture had several ups and downs. The first flowering occurred in the 5th-61st centuries, when the transition from slavery to the feudal system was completed in Byzantium. The emerging feudalism bore both Western and Eastern features. In particular, it was distinguished from Western Europe by the strict centralization of state power and the tax system, the growth of cities with their lively trade and crafts, and the absence of a clear class-class division of society. In the 6th century, under Justinian. Byzantium reached its greatest territorial size and became a powerful Mediterranean power.
In the VI-11th centuries. Byzantium was going through troubled times, marked by a sharp aggravation of socio-political contradictions, the source of which was the struggle for power between the capital and provincial nobility. During this period, an iconoclasm movement arose, directed against the cult of icons, which were declared a relic of idolatry. By the end of the 9th century. icon veneration was again restored.
X-XII centuries became the time of the next rise and prosperity of Byzantium. It establishes close ties with Kievan Rus. The role of Christianity and the Church during this period increases significantly. In artistic culture, a mature medieval style is finally taking shape, the main feature of which is spiritualism.
XIII century presented Byzantium with the most difficult trials, caused primarily by the Crusades. In 1204, the crusaders took Constantinople. The capital was plundered and destroyed, and Byzantium itself ceased to exist as an independent state. Only in 1261 did Emperor Michael VIII manage to restore and revive the Byzantine Empire.
In the XIV-XV centuries. it is experiencing its last rise and flowering, which is especially clearly manifested in artistic culture. However, the capture of Constantinople by Turkish troops in 1453 meant the end of Byzantium.
The artistic culture of Byzantium marked the highest achievements. Its originality lies in the fact that it combines seemingly incompatible principles. On the one hand, it is characterized by excessive luxury and splendor, bright entertainment. On the other hand, it is characterized by sublime solemnity, deep spirituality and refined spiritualism. These features were fully manifested in the architecture of Byzantine temples and churches.
The Byzantine temple differs significantly from the ancient classical temple. The latter acted as the abode of God, while all rituals and celebrations took place outside, around the temple or in the adjacent square. Therefore, the main thing in the temple was not the interior. and the exterior, its appearance. On the contrary, the Christian church is built as a place where believers gather. Therefore, the organization of internal space comes to the fore, although the appearance does not lose its importance.
It is in this spirit that the Church of St. Sophia in Constantinople (532–537), which became the most famous monument of Byzantine architecture. Its authors are the architects Anthymius and Isidore. Outwardly, it does not look too grandiose, although it is distinguished by severity, harmony and splendor of forms. However, inside it seems truly immense. The effect of boundless space is created primarily by the huge dome with a diameter of 31 m, located at a height of 55 m, as well as the adjacent sub-domes, expanding the already huge space.
The dome has 400 longitudinal windows, and when sunlight floods the space under the dome, it seems to float in the air. All this makes the design surprisingly light, elegant and free.
Inside the cathedral there are more than 100 columns decorated with malachite and porphyry. The vaults are decorated with mosaics with a symbolic image of a cross, and the walls are lined with the most valuable types of marble and decorated with mosaic paintings containing various religious scenes and portrait images of emperors and members of their families.
The Temple of Sophia has become a rare creation of human genius, a true masterpiece of not only Byzantine, but also world art. The temple is notable for another reason. that it organically combines two main types of construction: basilica and cross-domed.
The basilica is a rectangular building, divided inside by rows of columns, five or more longitudinal naves, the middle of which is usually wider and higher than the side naves. The eastern side of the basilica ends with a semicircular projection - an apse, where the altar is located, and on the western side there is an entrance.
A cross-domed building is most often square in plan. Inside, it has four massive pillars that divide the space into nine cells framed by arches and support the dome located in the center. The semi-cylindrical vaults adjacent to the dome form an equilateral cross. Until the 9th century. The predominant type of Byzantine church was the basilica, and then the increasingly complex cross-domed one.
In addition to Constantinople, a large number of architectural monuments are also concentrated in Ravenna, a city on the northern Italian coast of the Adriatic. Here is the impressive mausoleum of Galla Placidia, a Byzantine queen of the 5th century. In Ravenna there is the original octagonal church of San Vitale (VI century). Finally, here is also the tomb of the great Dante (XV century).
Byzantine architects successfully built outside the borders of their empire. One of the brightest successes in this regard was the Cathedral of San Marco (St. Mark) in Venice (11th century), which is a five-nave basilica in which an equal-pointed cross is inscribed. Each of the sections of the cross, covered with a separate dome, repeats in the overall design system the single theme of a cross in a square. In the center of the cathedral is the largest dome. The inside of the temple is lined with marble slabs and decorated with polychrome mosaics.
In the last period of the existence of Byzantium (X111-XV centuries), its architecture became more and more complex. Grandiose structures seem to break up into several small independent buildings. At the same time, the role of exterior decoration of buildings is increasing. A typical example of such a structure is the Chora Monastery in Constantinople, which was later rebuilt into the Kakhriz Jami Church.
The culture of Byzantium was famous not only for its architectural masterpieces. Other types and genres of art developed no less successfully - mosaic, fresco, icon painting, book miniatures, literature. First of all, the mosaic deserves special mention. It should be emphasized that in this genre of art Byzantium has no equal. Byzantine craftsmen knew all the secrets of making smalt with wonderful properties, and also knew how, with the help of skillful techniques, to transform the original variety of colors into an amazingly picturesque whole. Thanks to this, they created unsurpassed mosaic masterpieces.
Beautiful mosaics adorn the Temple of Sophia and other architectural monuments mentioned above, of which the tombs of Ravenna deserve special mention, where the main subject of the mosaic is Christ the Good Shepherd. There were magnificent mosaics in the Church of the Assumption in Nicaea, destroyed by war in 1922. Rarely beautiful mosaics adorn the Church of Demetrius in Thessalonica.
By the 11th century. A complete, classical style of Byzantine mosaic emerged. It is distinguished by a strict system of arrangement of plots that illustrate and reveal the main themes and dogmas of Christianity. According to this system, a half-length image of Christ Pantocrator (Pantocrator) is placed in the dome of the temple, and in the apse altar there is a figure of Our Lady Oranta praying with raised hands. On the sides of the fire there are figures of archangels, and in the bottom row - the apostles. It is in this style that many mosaic cycles of the 11th-11th centuries were executed. both in Byzantium itself and beyond its borders.
Icon painting reached a high level in Byzantium. which is a type of easel cult painting. The period of the first heyday of Byzantine icon painting occurred in the 10th-19th centuries, when the image of a human figure occupied a dominant position in the icon, and other elements - the landscape and architectural background - were conveyed very conditionally. Among the outstanding examples of icon painting of this period is the icon of Gregory the Wonderworker (12th century), which is distinguished by deep spirituality, delicate design and rich color. Of particular note is the icon of Our Lady of Vladimir (12th century), which became the main icon of the Russian Orthodox Church in Rus' and remains so to this day. The Mother of God and Child depicted on it is endowed with a soulful expression and, for all its holiness and spirituality, is filled with deep humanity and emotionality.
The next and last period of flowering of icon painting occurred in the 14th-15th centuries, from which a large number of beautiful icons have been preserved. Like all painting, iconography of this period undergoes noticeable changes. The color scheme becomes more complex, which is facilitated by the use of halftones. The naturalness and humanity of the depicted figures increases, they become lighter and more mobile, and are often depicted in motion.
An outstanding example of such painting is the icon of the Twelve Apostles (XIV century). The apostles depicted on it appear in different poses and clothes, they behave freely and relaxed, as if talking to each other. The front figures are larger than the back ones, their faces are voluminous due to the use of subtle highlights. In the 15th century In icon painting, the graphic element is enhanced; icons are executed with shading with thin parallel lines. A striking example of this style is the icon “The Descent of Christ into Hell” (15th century).
Like architecture and mosaics, icon painting became widespread outside Byzantium. Many Byzantine masters worked successfully in Slavic countries - Serbia, Bulgaria, Rus'. One of them, the great Theophanes the Greek, created his works in the 14th century. in Rus'. From him, the paintings in the Church of the Transfiguration in Novgorod, as well as the icons in the Annunciation Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin, have come down to us.
In 1453, under the onslaught of the Turks, Byzantium became pope, but its culture continues to exist today. It occupies a worthy place in world culture. Byzantium made its main contribution to world spiritual culture primarily through the establishment and development of Orthodox Christianity. No less significant was her contribution to artistic culture, to the development of architecture, mosaics, icon painting, and literature. It should be especially noted its beneficial influence on the formation and development of Russian culture.
2. In one of his decrees, Justinian I demanded: “...At any cost, stop the illegal patronage that is taking place, as we have learned, in our provinces. Do not allow anyone to exploit another, to appropriate lands that do not belong to him, to promise protection to those who have suffered harm, to use his power to destroy the state.”
Who was the emperor's decree directed against? Why are we talking about damage to state affairs?
I think that this decree was directed against nobles who exceeded their powers, tried to seize lands and manage them individually, which undermined the unity of the state.
3. Using map No. 4 (page IV), name the territories that were part of the Byzantine Empire in the middle of the 9th century. What lands were annexed to the empire in the 10th - first quarter of the 11th centuries?
In the middle of IX, the territory of the Byzantine Empire was reduced to the limits of the Balkan Peninsula and Asia Minor.
In the X - first quarter of XI, Byzantium conquered Bulgaria, part of Armenia and southern Italy.
The direct successor to the Roman Empire was the Byzantine (Eastern Roman) Empire, which lasted for more than 1000 years. She managed to repel barbarian invasions in the 5th–7th centuries. and for several more centuries remain the strongest Christian power, which contemporaries called the state of the Romans (Romans). The name Byzantium, accepted today, appeared only at the end of the 15th century. It comes from the name of the Greek colony of Byzantium, on the site of which in 330 the Roman Emperor Constantine I founded his new capital - Constantinople.
The Byzantine Empire was located in the eastern part of the Mediterranean and during the period of maximum expansion of its borders in the 6th century. included lands on three continents - Europe, Asia and Africa.
The Mediterranean climate favored the development of agriculture and cattle breeding. Iron, copper, tin, silver, gold and other minerals were mined on the territory of the empire. The empire could provide itself with everything it needed for a long time. Byzantium was located at the crossroads of the most important trade routes, the most famous of which was the Great Silk Road, which stretched 11 thousand km from Constantinople to mysterious China. The route of incense ran through Arabia and the ports of the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf to India, Ceylon and the islands of Southeast Asia. From Scandinavia through Eastern Europe to Byzantium the path “from the Varangians to the Greeks” led.
Constantinople. Medieval miniature
The Byzantine Empire surpassed other Christian countries in population, reaching 35 million people in the early Middle Ages. The bulk of the emperor's subjects were Greeks and those who spoke Greek and adopted Hellenic culture. In addition, Slavs, Syrians, Egyptians, Armenians, Georgians, Arabs, and Jews lived on a vast territory.
Ancient and Christian traditions in the life of the Byzantines
The Byzantine Empire absorbed the heritage of both the Greco-Roman world and the civilizations of Western Asia and North Africa (Interfluve, Egypt, Syria, etc.), which affected its state structure and culture. The legacy of Antiquity persisted in Byzantium much longer than in Western Europe. Constantinople was decorated with statues of ancient gods and heroes; the favorite spectacles of the Romans were equestrian competitions at hippodromes and theatrical performances. The works of famous ancient historians were the model for the Byzantines. Scientists studied and rewrote these works, many of which have survived to this day. Their example was followed by Procopius of Caesarea (VI century), who wrote “The History of Justinian’s Wars with the Persians, Vandals and Goths.”
By the 8th century. Christian culture became dominant: Byzantine architecture, painting and literature glorified the acts of God and the holy ascetics of the faith. The lives of saints and the writings of the Church Fathers became his favorite literary genre. The most revered Fathers of the Church were the Christian thinkers John Chrysostom, Basil the Great and Gregory the Theologian. Their writings and religious activities had a great influence on the development of Christian theology and church worship. In addition, the Byzantines worshiped the spiritual exploits of hermits and monks.
Christ Pantocrator. 1146–1151. Mosaic of the dome of the Church of Martorana. Palermo, Italy
Majestic temples were erected in the cities of the Byzantine Empire. It was here that the cross-domed type of church arose, which became widespread in many Orthodox countries, including Rus'. The cross-domed church was divided into three parts. The first part from the entrance is called the vestibule. The second part is the middle of the temple. It is divided into naves by pillars and is intended for the prayer of believers. The third section of the temple - the most important - is the altar, a holy place, therefore the uninitiated are not allowed to enter it. The middle part of the temple is separated from the altar by the iconostasis - a partition with many icons.
A characteristic feature of Byzantine art was the use of mosaics to decorate the interiors and facades of churches. The floors of palaces and temples were laid with mosaics made of valuable wood. The main temple of the Orthodox world - built in the 6th century. in Constantinople, the Cathedral of Hagia Sophia (Divine Wisdom) is decorated with magnificent mosaics and frescoes.
Education was developed in Byzantium. Children of wealthy people received their primary education at home - teachers and mentors were invited to them. Byzantines with average income sent their children to fee-paying schools in cities, churches and monasteries. Noble and rich people had the opportunity to study at the higher schools of Alexandria, Antioch and Constantinople. Education included the study of theology, philosophy, astronomy, geometry, arithmetic, medicine, music, history, law and other sciences. Higher schools trained high-ranking officials. Emperors patronized such schools.
Books played an important role in the dissemination of knowledge and the establishment of Christianity. The Romans loved to read the lives (biographies) of saints and the writings of the Church Fathers, who in their works explained complex theological questions: what is the Trinity, what is the divine nature of Jesus Christ, etc.
State power, society and church
State power in the Byzantine Empire combined features characteristic of both ancient and ancient Eastern society. The Byzantines believed that God himself entrusted the emperor with supreme power over his subjects, and that is why the ruler is responsible to the Lord for their destinies. The divine origin of power was emphasized by the magnificent and solemn rite of crowning.
Emperor Vasily II Bulgarian Slayer. Medieval miniature
The emperor had almost unlimited power: he appointed officials and military leaders, controlled the collection of taxes, and personally commanded the army. Imperial power was often not inherited, but was seized by a successful military leader or nobleman. A lowly person, but energetic, strong-willed, intelligent and talented, could achieve the highest government positions and even the imperial crown. The promotion of a nobleman or official depended on the favor of the emperor, from whom he received titles, positions, money and land grants. The clan nobility did not have the same influence in Byzantium that noble people had in Western Europe and never formed into an independent class.
A feature of Byzantium was the long-term preservation of small-scale, including peasant, land ownership, and the viability of the peasant community. However, despite the attempts of the imperial government to slow down the processes of landlessness among community members (who paid taxes to the state and served in the army), the decomposition of the peasant community and the formation of large land holdings, during the late empire, peasants increasingly turned into people dependent on large landowners. The community survived only on the outskirts of the state.
Merchants and artisans were under the vigilant control of the state, which patronized their activities, but at the same time placed their activities within strict limits, imposing high duties and carrying out petty supervision. The urban population was never able to achieve recognition by the state of their rights and defend their privileges like the townspeople of Western Europe.
Unlike the Western Christian Church, headed by the Pope, there was no single center in the Eastern Christian Church. The Patriarchates of Constantinople, Antioch, Jerusalem, and Alexandria were considered independent, but the actual head of the Eastern Church was the Patriarch of Constantinople. From the 7th century, after the Byzantines lost the eastern provinces as a result of the Arab conquests, he remained the only patriarch on the territory of the empire.
The head of the Western Church successfully claimed not only spiritual power over all Christians, but also supremacy over secular rulers - kings, dukes and princes. In the east, the relationship between secular and spiritual power was complex. The emperor and the patriarch were mutually dependent on each other. The emperor appointed a patriarch, which recognized the role of the emperor as an instrument of God. But the emperor was crowned king by the patriarch - in Byzantium it was believed that it was the act of wedding that elevated one to imperial dignity.
Gradually, more and more contradictions accumulated between the Christian churches in the West and the East, resulting in the separation of Western Christianity (Catholicism) from Eastern Christianity (Orthodoxy). This process, which began in the 8th century, ended in 1054 with a schism. The Byzantine patriarch and the Pope cursed each other. Thus, in the Middle Ages, two Christian worlds arose - Orthodox and Catholic.
Byzantium between West and East
The death of the Western Roman Empire and the formation of barbarian kingdoms in its place were perceived in Byzantium as tragic but temporary phenomena. Even the common people retained the idea of the need to restore a unified Roman Empire covering the entire Christian world.
The Byzantines storm the Arab fortress. Medieval miniature
An attempt to strengthen the state and return lost lands was made by Emperor Justinian I (527–565). Having carried out administrative and military reforms, Justinian strengthened the internal position of the state. He managed to annex Italy, North Africa, and part of the Iberian Peninsula to the empire's possessions. It seemed that the former Roman Empire had been reborn as a powerful power, controlling almost the entire Mediterranean.
For a long time, Iran was a formidable enemy of Byzantium in the east. Long and bloody wars exhausted both sides. In the 7th century The Byzantines still managed to restore their borders in the east - Syria and Palestine were recaptured.
During the same period, Byzantium had a new, even more dangerous enemy - the Arabs. Under their attacks, the empire lost almost all Asian (except Asia Minor) and African provinces. The Arabs even besieged Constantinople, but were unable to capture it. Only in the middle of the 9th century. The Romans managed to stop their onslaught and recapture some territories.
By the 11th century. Byzantium revived its power. Despite the fact that its territory has shrunk compared to the 6th century. (the empire controlled Asia Minor, the Balkans and southern Italy), it was the largest and most powerful Christian state of that time. About 1.5 million people lived in more than 400 cities of the empire. The agriculture of Byzantium produced enough products to feed its large population.
At the beginning of the 13th century. The Byzantine Empire suffered a catastrophe. In 1204, Western European knights - participants in the IV Crusade, heading to Palestine to liberate the Holy Sepulcher from Muslims, were flattered by the untold wealth of the Romans. Christian crusaders plundered and destroyed Constantinople, the center of the Orthodox empire. In place of Byzantium, they created the Latin Empire, which did not last long - already in 1261 the Greeks regained Constantinople. However, the restored Byzantine Empire was never able to achieve its former greatness.
Byzantium and the Slavs
The Romans first encountered the Slavs during the Great Migration. The first mentions of Byzantine sources about Slavic tribes date back to the 5th–6th centuries. Emperor Justinian I created a system of fortresses on the Danube border to defend against Slavic invasions. However, this did not stop the warlike neighbors, who often attacked the Balkan provinces of the empire, plundering cities and villages, sometimes reaching the outskirts of Constantinople and taking thousands of local residents into captivity. In the 7th century Slavic tribes began to settle within the empire. For 100 years they captured 3/4 of the territory of the Balkan Peninsula.
On the Danube lands, developed by the Slavs, in 681 the First Bulgarian Kingdom arose, founded by Turkic nomadic Bulgarians led by Khan Asparukh, who came from the Northern Black Sea region. Soon the Turks and the Slavs who lived here already formed a single people. In the person of the strong Bulgarian state, Byzantium received its main rival in the Balkans.
Battle of the Byzantines and Bulgarians. Medieval miniature
But relations between the two states were not limited to wars. The Byzantines hoped that the adoption of Christianity by the Slavs would reconcile them with the empire, which would have leverage over their restless neighbors. In 865, the Bulgarian Tsar Boris I (852–889) converted to Christianity according to the Orthodox rite.
Among the Byzantine missionaries who preached Christianity to the Slavs, the brothers Cyril and Methodius left a deep mark on history. To make it easier to understand the Holy Scriptures, they created the Slavic alphabet - the Cyrillic alphabet, which we still use today. The adoption of Christianity from Byzantium and the creation of Slavic writing led to the flourishing of the culture of the Slavic peoples, who were among the culturally advanced peoples of the Middle Ages.
The Old Russian state maintained close political, trade and economic relations with the Byzantine Empire. A direct consequence of intensive contacts was the penetration of Christianity into Rus' from Byzantium. Its spread was facilitated by Byzantine merchants, Slavic mercenaries who served in the Byzantine guard and converted to Orthodoxy. In 988, Prince Vladimir I himself received baptism from Byzantine priests and baptized Rus'.
Despite the fact that the Slavs and Byzantines became co-religionists, the brutal wars did not stop. In the second half of the 10th century. Byzantium began a struggle to subjugate the Bulgarian kingdom, which ended with the inclusion of Bulgaria into the empire. The independence of the first Slavic state in the Balkans was restored only at the end of the 12th century. as a result of a popular uprising.
The cultural and religious influence of Byzantium, along with the southern Slavs, was experienced by many countries and peoples of Eastern Europe, Transcaucasia and Northeast Africa. The Roman Empire acted as the head of the entire Eastern Christian world. There were significant differences in the political system, culture and church structure of Byzantium and the countries of Western Europe.
Questions and tasks
1. What was the influence of Antiquity on the history and culture of the Byzantine Empire?
2. What role did the power of the emperor and the Orthodox Church play in the life of the Romans?
3. What is the difference between the Eastern and Western Christian worlds?
4. What external threats did the Byzantine Empire resist? How did its international position change in the middle of the 13th century? compared to the 6th century?
5. How were the relations between Byzantium and the Slavs?
6. What is the importance of the cultural heritage of Byzantium for modern times?
7. In the work of the Byzantine historian of the 7th century. Theophylact Simocatta says this about the importance of the human mind: “A person should adorn himself not only with what is good for him by nature, but also with what he himself has found and invented for himself in his life. He has reason - a property in some respects divine and amazing. Thanks to him, he learned to fear and honor God, how to see manifestations of his own nature in a mirror and clearly imagine the structure and order of his life. Thanks to reason, people turn their gaze to themselves, from the contemplation of external phenomena they direct their observations to themselves and thereby reveal the secrets of their creation. I believe that reason has given people a lot of good things, and it is the best helper of their nature. What was not finished or not done by her, the mind created and finished perfectly: for sight it gave decoration, for taste - pleasure, some things it stretched, making it hard, others it made soft; He appealed to the ears with songs, bewitching the soul with the spell of sounds and involuntarily forcing him to listen to them. But isn’t this fully proven to us by someone who is an expert in all kinds of crafts, who can weave a thin tunic out of wool, who can make a plow handle for a farmer out of wood, an oar for a sailor, and a spear and a shield for a warrior to protect them in the dangers of battle? »
Why does he call the mind divine and amazing?
How do nature and the human mind interact, according to Theophylact?
Think about what is common and what is different about the views of Western and Eastern Christianity on the role of the human mind.
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