Greek astronomer Claudius Ptolemy (c. 130 AD) is the author of a remarkable book that served as the primary textbook on astronomy for nearly 15 centuries. However, in addition to the astronomical textbook, Ptolemy also wrote the book “Optics”, in which he outlined the theory of vision, the theory of flat and spherical mirrors and the study of the phenomenon of light refraction. Ptolemy encountered the phenomenon of light refraction while observing the stars. He noticed that a ray of light, moving from one medium to another, “breaks.” Therefore, a star ray, passing through the earth’s atmosphere, reaches the earth’s surface not in a straight line, but along a curved line, that is, refraction occurs. The curvature of the beam occurs due to the fact that the air density changes with altitude.

To study the law of refraction, Ptolemy conducted the following experiment. He took a circle and fixed the rulers l1 and l2 on the axis so that they could rotate freely around it (see figure). Ptolemy immersed this circle in water to the diameter AB and, turning the lower ruler, ensured that the rulers lay on the same straight line for the eye (if you look along the upper ruler). After this, he took the circle out of the water and compared the angles of incidence α and refraction β. It measured angles with an accuracy of 0.5°. The numbers obtained by Ptolemy are presented in the table.

Ptolemy did not find a “formula” for the relationship between these two series of numbers. However, if we determine the sines of these angles, it turns out that the ratio of the sines is expressed by almost the same number, even with such a rough measurement of angles, which Ptolemy resorted to.

Due to the refraction of light in a calm atmosphere, the apparent position of stars in the sky relative to the horizon

1) higher than actual position

2) below actual position

3) shifted to one side or another vertically relative to the actual position

4) matches the actual position

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In a calm atmosphere, the position of stars that are not perpendicular to the Earth’s surface at the point where the observer is located is observed. What is the apparent position of the stars - above or below their actual position relative to the horizon? Explain your answer.

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In the text, refraction refers to the phenomenon

1) changes in the direction of propagation of a light beam due to reflection at the boundary of the atmosphere

2) changes in the direction of propagation of a light beam due to refraction in the Earth's atmosphere

3) absorption of light as it propagates through the Earth's atmosphere

4) bending of a light beam around obstacles and thereby deviation from rectilinear propagation

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Which of the following conclusions contradicts Ptolemy's experiments?

1) the angle of refraction is less than the angle of incidence when the beam passes from air to water

2) As the angle of incidence increases, the angle of refraction increases linearly

3) the ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction does not change

4) the sine of the angle of refraction depends linearly on the sine of the angle of incidence

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Photoluminescence

Some substances themselves begin to glow when illuminated by electromagnetic radiation. This glow, or luminescence, has an important feature: the luminescent light has a different spectral composition than the light that caused the glow. Observations show that luminescence light has a longer wavelength than the exciting light. For example, if a beam of violet light is directed at a cone containing a fluorescein solution, the illuminated liquid begins to luminesce brightly with green-yellow light.

Some bodies retain the ability to glow for some time after their illumination has ceased. This afterglow can have different durations: from a fraction of a second to many hours. It is customary to call a glow that stops with illumination fluorescence, and a glow that has a noticeable duration is phosphorescence.

Phosphorescent crystalline powders are used to coat special screens that retain their glow for two to three minutes after illumination. Such screens also glow when exposed to X-rays.

Phosphorescent powders have found very important use in the manufacture of fluorescent lamps. In gas-discharge lamps filled with mercury vapor, when passing electric current ultraviolet radiation occurs. Soviet physicist S.I. Vavilov proposed covering the inner surface of such lamps with a specially prepared phosphorescent composition, which produces visible light when irradiated with ultraviolet light. By selecting the composition of the phosphorescent substance, it is possible to obtain the spectral composition of the emitted light as close as possible to the spectral composition of daylight.

The phenomenon of luminescence is characterized by extremely high sensitivity: sometimes 10 – 10 g of a luminous substance, for example in a solution, is enough to detect this substance by its characteristic glow. This property is the basis of luminescent analysis, which makes it possible to detect negligible impurities and judge about contaminants or processes leading to changes in the original substance.

Human tissue contains a large number of a variety of natural fluorophores that have different fluorescence spectral regions. The figure shows the emission spectra of the main fluorophores of biological tissues and the scale of electromagnetic waves.

According to the data presented, pyroxidine glows

1) red light

2) yellow light

3) green light

4) purple light

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Two identical crystals, which have the property of phosphorescent in the yellow part of the spectrum, were preliminarily illuminated: the first with red rays, the second with blue rays. For which of the crystals can the afterglow be observed? Explain your answer.

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When examining food products, the luminescent method can be used to identify spoilage and falsification of products.
The table shows the luminescence indicators of fats.

The luminescence color of the butter changed from yellow-green to blue. This means that the butter may have been added

1) only creamy margarine

2) only “Extra” margarine

3) only vegetable lard

4) any of the following fats

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Albedo of the Earth

The temperature at the Earth's surface depends on the reflectivity of the planet - albedo. Surface albedo is the ratio of the energy flux of reflected solar rays to the energy flux of solar rays incident on the surface, expressed as a percentage or fraction of a unit. The Earth's albedo in the visible part of the spectrum is about 40%. In the absence of clouds it would be about 15%.

Albedo depends on many factors: the presence and condition of cloudiness, changes in glaciers, time of year, and, accordingly, precipitation.

In the 90s of the 20th century, the significant role of aerosols—“clouds” of tiny solid and liquid particles in the atmosphere—became obvious. When fuel is burned, gaseous sulfur and nitrogen oxides are released into the air; combining in the atmosphere with water droplets, they form sulfuric, nitric acids and ammonia, which then turn into sulfate and nitrate aerosols. Aerosols not only reflect sunlight, preventing it from reaching the Earth's surface. Aerosol particles serve as condensation nuclei for atmospheric moisture during cloud formation and thereby contribute to an increase in cloudiness. And this, in turn, reduces the influx solar heat to the earth's surface.

Transparency to sunlight in the lower layers of the earth's atmosphere also depends on fires. Due to fires, dust and soot rise into the atmosphere, which cover the Earth with a dense screen and increase the albedo of the surface.

Which statements are true?

A. Aerosols reflect sunlight and thereby help reduce the Earth's albedo.

B. Volcanic eruptions increase the Earth's albedo.

1) only A

2) only B

3) both A and B

4) neither A nor B

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The table shows some characteristics for the planets solar system- Venus and Mars. It is known that the albedo of Venus A 1= 0.76, and the albedo of Mars A 2= 0.15. Which of the characteristics mainly influenced the difference in the albedo of the planets?

1) A 2) B 3) IN 4) G

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Does the Earth's albedo increase or decrease during volcanic eruptions? Explain your answer.

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Surface albedo refers to

1) total flux of solar rays incident on the Earth's surface

2) ratio of reflected radiation energy flux to absorbed radiation flux

3) ratio of reflected radiation energy flux to incident radiation flux

4) difference between incident and reflected radiation energy

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Study of spectra

All heated bodies emit electromagnetic waves. To experimentally study the dependence of radiation intensity on wavelength, it is necessary:

1) decompose the radiation into a spectrum;

2) measure the energy distribution in the spectrum.

Spectral devices - spectrographs - are used to obtain and study spectra. The diagram of the prism spectrograph is shown in the figure. The radiation under study first enters a tube, at one end of which there is a screen with a narrow slit, and at the other - a collecting lens L 1 . The slit is at the focal point of the lens. Therefore, a diverging light beam incident on the lens from the slit emerges from it as a parallel beam and falls on the prism R.

Since different frequencies correspond to different refractive indices, parallel beams of different colors come out of the prism, but do not coincide in direction. They fall on the lens L 2. At the focal length of this lens there is a screen, ground glass or photographic plate. Lens L 2 focuses parallel beams of rays on the screen, and instead of a single image of the slit, the result is whole line images. Each frequency (more precisely, a narrow spectral interval) has its own image in the form of a colored stripe. All these images together
and form a spectrum.

Radiation energy causes the body to heat up, so it is enough to measure the body temperature and use it to judge the amount of energy absorbed per unit time. As a sensitive element, you can take a thin metal plate coated with a thin layer of soot, and by heating the plate, judge the radiation energy in a given part of the spectrum.

The decomposition of light into a spectrum in the apparatus shown in the figure is based on

1) phenomenon of light dispersion

2) phenomenon of light reflection

3) phenomenon of light absorption

4) properties of a thin lens

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In a prism spectrograph device, the lens L 2 (see figure) is used for

1) decomposition of light into spectrum

2) focusing rays of a certain frequency into a narrow strip on the screen

3) determination of radiation intensity in various parts spectrum

4) converting a diverging light beam into parallel rays

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Is it necessary to cover the metal plate of a thermometer used in a spectrograph with a layer of soot? Explain your answer.

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Job source: Solution 4555. OGE 2017 Physics, E.E. Kamzeeva. 30 options.

Task 20. In the text, refraction refers to the phenomenon

1) changes in the direction of propagation of the light beam due to reflection at the boundary of the atmosphere

2) changes in the direction of propagation of a light beam due to refraction in the Earth’s atmosphere

3) absorption of light as it propagates in the Earth’s atmosphere

4) the light beam bends around obstacles and thereby deviates from straight-line propagation

Solution.

Before a ray of light from a distant space object (such as a star) can enter the eye of an observer, it must pass through the earth's atmosphere. In this case, the light beam undergoes the processes of refraction, absorption and scattering.

Refraction of light in the atmosphere is an optical phenomenon caused by the refraction of light rays in the atmosphere and manifested in the apparent displacement of distant objects (for example, stars observed in the sky). As the light ray from a celestial body approaches the surface of the Earth, the density of the atmosphere increases (Fig. 1), and the rays are refracted more and more. The process of propagation of a light beam through the earth's atmosphere can be simulated using a stack of transparent plates, the optical density of which changes as the beam propagates.

Due to refraction, the observer sees objects not in the direction of their actual position, but along the tangent to the beam path at the observation point (Fig. 3). The angle between the true and apparent directions of an object is called the angle of refraction. Stars near the horizon, whose light must pass through the greatest thickness of the atmosphere, are most susceptible to atmospheric refraction (the refraction angle is about 1/6 of an angular degree).

Have you ever wondered why the stars are not visible in the sky during the daytime? After all, the air is as transparent during the day as it is at night. The whole point here is that during the daytime the atmosphere scatters sunlight.

Imagine that you are in a well-lit room in the evening. Through the window glass, bright lights located outside are visible quite clearly. But dimly lit objects are almost impossible to see. However, as soon as you turn off the light in the room, the glass ceases to serve as an obstacle to our vision.

Something similar happens when observing the sky: during the day, the atmosphere above us is brightly illuminated and the Sun is visible through it, but the weak light of distant stars cannot penetrate. But after the Sun sinks below the horizon and the sunlight (and with it the light scattered by the air) “turns off,” the atmosphere becomes “transparent” and the stars can be observed.

It's a different matter in space. As you rise spaceship At altitude, the dense layers of the atmosphere remain below and the sky gradually darkens.

At an altitude of about 200-300 km, where manned spacecraft usually fly, the sky is completely black. It is always black, even if the Sun is currently on the visible part of it.

“The sky is completely black. The stars in this sky look somewhat brighter and are more clearly visible against the background of the black sky,” this is how the first cosmonaut Yu. A. Gagarin described his space impressions.

But still, even from the spacecraft on the day side of the sky, not all the stars are visible, but only the brightest. The eye is disturbed by the blinding light of the Sun and the light of the Earth.

If we look at the sky from Earth, we will clearly see that all the stars are twinkling. They seem to fade, then flare up, shimmering with different colors. And the lower the star is located above the horizon, the stronger the flickering.

The twinkling of stars is also explained by the presence of an atmosphere. Before reaching our eyes, the light emitted by a star passes through the atmosphere. In the atmosphere there are always masses of warmer and colder air. Its Density depends on the temperature of the air in a particular area. Passing from one area to another, light rays experience refraction. The direction of their propagation changes. Due to this, in some places above the earth's surface they are concentrated, in others they are relatively rare. As a result of the constant movement of air masses, these zones are constantly shifting, and the observer sees either an increase or decrease in the brightness of the stars. But since different colored rays are not refracted equally, the moments of intensification and weakening of different colors do not occur simultaneously.

In addition, other, more complex optical effects can play a certain role in the twinkling of stars.

The presence of warm and cold layers of air and intense movements of air masses also affect the quality of telescopic images.

Where are the best conditions for astronomical observations: in the mountains or on the plains, on the seashore or inland, in the forest or in the desert? And in general, what is better for astronomers - ten cloudless nights over the course of a month or just one clear night, but one when the air is perfectly clear and calm?

This is only a small part of the issues that have to be resolved when choosing a location for the construction of observatories and the installation of large telescopes. A special field of science deals with such problems - astro-climatology.

Of course, the best conditions for astronomical observations are outside the dense layers of the atmosphere, in space. By the way, the stars here do not twinkle, but burn with a cold, calm light.

Familiar constellations look exactly the same in space as they do on Earth. The stars are at enormous distances from us, and moving away from the earth's surface by a few hundred kilometers cannot change anything in their visible appearance. relative position. Even when observed from Pluto, the outlines of the constellations would be exactly the same.

During one orbit from a spacecraft moving in low-Earth orbit, in principle, you can see all the constellations of the earth's sky. Observing stars from space is of dual interest: astronomical and navigational. In particular, it is very important to observe starlight unmodified by the atmosphere.

Navigation by the stars is no less important in space. By observing pre-selected “reference” stars, you can not only orient the ship, but also determine its position in space.

For a long time, astronomers have dreamed of future observatories on the surface of the Moon. It seemed that the complete absence of atmosphere should create natural satellite The Earth has ideal conditions for astronomical observations both during the lunar night and during the lunar day.

THE GOVERNMENT OF MOSCOW

MOSCOW DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION

EASTERN DISTRICT DEPARTMENT

STATE BUDGET EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION

SECONDARY SCHOOL No. 000

111141 Moscow st. Perovskaya building 44-a, building 1,2 Telephone

Lesson No. 5 (02/28/13)

"Work with text"

Examination materials in physics include tasks that test students’ ability to master information that is new to them, work with this information, and answer questions, the answers to which follow from the text proposed for study. After studying the text, three tasks are offered (No. 16,17 - basic level, No. 18 - advanced level).

Gilbert's experiments on magnetism.

Gilbert cut a ball out of a natural magnet so that it had poles at two diametrically opposite points. He called this spherical magnet a terella (Fig. 1), that is, a small Earth. By bringing a moving magnetic needle closer to it, you can clearly show the various positions of the magnetic needle that it takes in various points earth's surface: at the equator the arrow is located parallel to the horizon plane, at the pole - perpendicular to the horizon plane.

Let us consider an experiment that reveals “magnetism through influence.” Let's hang two iron strips parallel to each other on threads and slowly bring a large permanent magnet towards them. In this case, the lower ends of the strips diverge, since they are magnetized equally (Fig. 2a). As the magnet approaches further, the lower ends of the strips converge somewhat, since the pole of the magnet itself begins to act on them with greater force (Fig. 2b).

Task 16

How does the angle of inclination of the magnetic needle change as it moves across the globe along the meridian from the equator to the pole?

1) increases all the time

2) decreases all the time

3) first increases, then decreases

4) first decreases, then increases

Correct answer: 1

Task 17

At what points are they located? magnetic poles terella (Fig. 1)?

Correct answer: 2

Task 18

In an experiment revealing "magnetism through influence", both iron strips are magnetized. In Figures 2a and 2b, the poles of the left strip are indicated for both cases.

At the lower end of the right stripe

1) in both cases the south pole appears

2) in both cases the north pole appears

3) in the first case the northern one arises, and in the second the southern one arises

4) in the first case the southern one arises, and in the second the northern one arises

Correct answer: 2

Ptolemy's experiments on the refraction of light.

Greek astronomer Claudius Ptolemy (c. 130 AD) is the author of a remarkable book that served as the primary textbook on astronomy for nearly 15 centuries. However, in addition to the astronomical textbook, Ptolemy also wrote the book “Optics”, in which he outlined the theory of vision, the theory of flat and spherical mirrors and a study of the phenomenon of refraction of light.

Ptolemy encountered the phenomenon of light refraction while observing the stars. He noticed that a ray of light, moving from one medium to another, “breaks.” Therefore, a star ray, passing through the earth’s atmosphere, reaches the earth’s surface not in a straight line, but along a curved line, that is, refraction occurs. The curvature of the beam occurs due to the fact that the air density changes with altitude.

To study the law of refraction, Ptolemy conducted the following experiment..gif" width="13" height="24 src="> (see figure). The rulers could rotate around the center of the circle on a common axis O.

Ptolemy immersed this circle in water to the diameter AB and, turning the lower ruler, ensured that the rulers lay on the same straight line for the eye (if you look along the upper ruler). After that, he took the circle out of the water and compared the angles of incidence α and refraction β . It measured angles with an accuracy of 0.5°. The numbers obtained by Ptolemy are presented in the table.

Angle of incidence α , hail
Angle of refraction β , hail

Ptolemy did not find a “formula” for the relationship between these two series of numbers. However, if we determine the sines of these angles, it turns out that the ratio of the sines is expressed by almost the same number, even with such a rough measurement of angles, which Ptolemy resorted to.

Task 16

In the text, refraction refers to the phenomenon

1) changes in the direction of propagation of the light beam due to reflection at the boundary of the atmosphere

2) changes in the direction of propagation of a light beam due to refraction in the Earth’s atmosphere

3) absorption of light as it propagates in the Earth’s atmosphere

4) bending of the light beam around obstacles and, thereby, deviation from rectilinear propagation

Correct answer: 2

Task 17

Which of the following conclusions contradicts Ptolemy's experiments?

1) the angle of refraction is less than the angle of incidence when the beam passes from air to water

2) with increasing angle of incidence, the angle of refraction increases linearly

3) the ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction does not change

4) the sine of the angle of refraction depends linearly on the sine of the angle of incidence

Correct answer: 2

Task 18

Due to the refraction of light in a calm atmosphere, the apparent position of stars in the sky relative to the horizon

1) above the actual position

2) below the actual position

3) shifted to one side or another vertically relative to the actual position

4) coincides with the actual position

Correct answer: 1

Thomson's experiments and the discovery of the electron

At the end of the 19th century, many experiments were carried out to study electric discharge in rarefied gases. The discharge was excited between the cathode and anode, sealed inside a glass tube from which the air was evacuated. What came from the cathode was called cathode rays.

To determine the nature of cathode rays, the English physicist Joseph John Thomson (1856 - 1940) conducted the following experiment. His experimental setup was a vacuum cathode ray tube (see figure). The incandescent cathode K was a source of cathode rays, which accelerated electric field, existing between anode A and cathode K. There was a hole in the center of the anode. The cathode rays passing through this hole hit point G on the wall of the tube S opposite the hole in the anode. If wall S is covered with a fluorescent substance, then the rays hitting point G will appear as a luminous spot. On the way from A to G, the rays passed between the plates of a capacitor CD, to which voltage from a battery could be applied.

If you turn on this battery, the rays are deflected by the electric field of the capacitor and a spot appears on the screen S at position . Thomson proposed that cathode rays behave like negatively charged particles. By creating in the area between the capacitor plates a uniform magnetic field perpendicular to the plane of the picture (it is depicted by dots), you can cause the speck to deflect in the same or opposite direction.

Experiments have shown that the charge of the particle is equal in magnitude to the charge of the hydrogen ion (C), and its mass turns out to be almost 1840 times less than the mass of the hydrogen ion.

Later it received the name electron. The day April 30, 1897, when Joseph John Thomson reported on his research, is considered the “birthday” of the electron.

Task 16

What are cathode rays?

1) X-rays

2) gamma rays

3) electron flow

4) ion flow

Correct answer: 3

Task 17

A. Cathode rays interact with the electric field.

B. Cathode rays interact with magnetic field.

1) only A

2) only B

4) neither A nor B

Correct answer: 3

Task 18

The cathode rays (see figure) will hit point G provided that between the plates of the capacitor CD

1) only the electric field acts

2) only the magnetic field acts

3) the action of forces from the electric and magnetic fields is compensated

4) the effect of forces from the magnetic field is negligible

Correct answer: 3

Experimental discovery of the law of equivalence of heat and work.

In 1807, the physicist J. Gay-Lussac, who studied the properties of gases, performed a simple experiment. It has long been known that compressed gas, expanding, cools. Gay-Lussac forced the gas to expand into emptiness - into a vessel from which the air had previously been pumped out. To his surprise, no decrease in temperature occurred; the temperature of the gas did not change. The researcher could not explain the result: why does the same gas, equally compressed, expand, cool if it is released directly outside into the atmosphere, and not cool if it is released into an empty vessel where the pressure is zero?

The German doctor Robert Mayer was able to explain the experience. Mayer had the idea that work and heat could be transformed into one another. This wonderful idea immediately made it possible for Mayer to make clear the mysterious result in the Gay-Lussac experiment: if heat and work are mutually converted, then when a gas expands into emptiness, when it does not do any work, since there is no force (pressure) opposing its increase volume, the gas should not be cooled. If, when a gas expands, it has to do work against external pressure, its temperature should decrease. You can't get a job for nothing! Mayer's remarkable result has been confirmed many times by direct measurements; Of particular importance were the experiments of Joule, who measured the amount of heat required to heat a liquid by rotating a stirrer in it. At the same time, both the work expended on rotating the mixer and the amount of heat received by the liquid were measured. No matter how the experimental conditions changed, we took different liquids, different vessels and mixers, the result was the same: the same amount of heat was always obtained from the same work.

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Melting curve (p - pressure, T - temperature)

According to modern ideas, most of the earth's interior remains solid. However, the substance of the asthenosphere (the shell of the Earth from 100 km to 300 km in depth) is in an almost molten state. This is the name for a solid state that easily turns into a liquid (molten) with a slight increase in temperature (process 1) or decrease in pressure (process 2).

The source of primary magma melts is the asthenosphere. If pressure decreases in some area (for example, when sections of the lithosphere shift), then solid the asthenosphere immediately turns into a liquid melt, i.e., into magma.

But what physical reasons set in motion the mechanism of a volcanic eruption?

Magma, along with water vapor, contains various gases (carbon dioxide, hydrogen chloride and fluoride, sulfur oxides, methane and others). The concentration of dissolved gases corresponds to external pressure. In physics, Henry's law is known: the concentration of a gas dissolved in a liquid is proportional to its pressure above the liquid. Now imagine that the pressure at depth has decreased. Gases dissolved in magma become gaseous. The magma increases in volume, foams and begins to rise upward. As the magma rises, the pressure drops even more, so the process of gas release intensifies, which, in turn, leads to an acceleration of the rise.

Task 16

In what state of aggregation Is the asthenosphere matter located in regions I and II on the diagram (see figure)?

1) I – in liquid, II – in solid

2) I – in solid, II – in liquid

3) I – in liquid, II – in liquid

4) I – in solid, II – in solid

Correct answer: 2

Task 17

What force causes molten, foaming magma to rise upward?

1) gravity

2) elastic force

3) Archimedes' force

4) friction force

Correct answer: 3

Task 18

Caisson sickness is a disease that occurs when a diver quickly rises from great depths. Caisson disease occurs in humans when there is a rapid change in external pressure. When working under conditions of increased pressure, human tissues absorb additional amounts of nitrogen. Therefore, scuba divers must ascend slowly so that the blood has time to carry the resulting gas bubbles into the lungs.

Which statements are true?

A. The concentration of nitrogen dissolved in the blood increases the deeper the diver dives.

B. During an excessively rapid transition from a high-pressure environment to a low-pressure environment, excess nitrogen dissolved in the tissues is released, forming gas bubbles.

1) only A

2) only B

4) neither A nor B

Correct answer: 3

Geysers

Geysers are located near active or recently dormant volcanoes. Geysers require heat from volcanoes to erupt.

To understand the physics of geysers, recall that the boiling point of water depends on pressure (see figure).

Dependence of the boiling point of water on pressure https://pandia.ru/text/78/089/images/image013_71.gif" width="25" height="21"> Pa. In this case, the water in the tube

1) will move downward under the influence of atmospheric pressure

2) will remain in equilibrium, since its temperature is below the boiling point

3) will cool quickly, since its temperature is below the boiling point at a depth of 10 m

4) will boil, since its temperature is higher than the boiling point at external pressure Pa

Correct answer: 4

Fog

Under certain conditions, water vapor in the air partially condenses, resulting in water droplets of fog. Water droplets have a diameter from 0.5 microns to 100 microns.

Take a vessel, fill it halfway with water and close the lid. The fastest water molecules, overcoming the attraction from other molecules, jump out of the water and form steam above the surface of the water. This process is called water evaporation. On the other hand, water vapor molecules, colliding with each other and with other air molecules, can randomly end up at the surface of the water and turn back into liquid. This is steam condensation. Ultimately, at a given temperature, the processes of evaporation and condensation are mutually compensated, that is, a state of thermodynamic equilibrium is established. The water vapor located in this case above the surface of the liquid is called saturated.

If the temperature is increased, the rate of evaporation increases and equilibrium is established at a higher density of water vapor. Thus, the density of saturated vapor increases with increasing temperature (see figure).

Dependence of saturated water vapor density on temperature

For fog to occur, the steam must become not just saturated, but supersaturated. Water vapor becomes saturated (and supersaturated) with sufficient cooling (AB process) or during additional evaporation of water (AC process). Accordingly, the falling fog is called cooling fog and evaporation fog.

The second condition necessary for the formation of fog is the presence of condensation nuclei (centers). The role of nuclei can be played by ions, tiny droplets of water, dust particles, soot particles and other small contaminants. The more air pollution, the denser the fog.

Task 16

The graph in the figure shows that at a temperature of 20 °C, the density of saturated water vapor is 17.3 g/m3. This means that at 20 °C

5) in 1 m the mass of saturated water vapor is 17.3 g

6) 17.3 m of air contains 1 g of saturated water vapor

8) air density is 17.3 g/m

Correct answer: 1

Task 17

In which process shown on the graph can evaporation fog be observed?

1) AB only

2) only AC

4) neither AB nor AC

Correct answer: 2

Task 18

Which statements are true?

A. Urban fogs, compared to fogs in mountainous areas, are characterized by a higher density.

B. Fogs are observed when the air temperature rises sharply.

1) only A

2) only B

4) neither A nor B

Correct answer: 1

The color of the sky and the setting sun

Why is the sky blue? Why does the setting Sun turn red? It turns out that in both cases the reason is the same - the scattering of sunlight in the earth's atmosphere.

In 1869, the English physicist J. Tyndall performed the following experiment: a weakly diverging narrow beam of light was passed through a rectangular aquarium filled with water. It was noted that if you look at the light beam in the aquarium from the side, it appears bluish. And if you look at the beam from the output end, the light takes on a reddish tint. This can be explained by assuming that blue (blue) light is scattered more than red light. Therefore, when a white light beam passes through a scattering medium, mainly blue light is scattered from it, so that red light begins to predominate in the beam emerging from the medium. The further a white beam travels in a scattering medium, the redder it appears at the exit.

In 1871, J. Strett (Rayleigh) developed a theory of scattering of light waves by small particles. The law established by Rayleigh states: the intensity of scattered light is proportional to the fourth power of the frequency of light or, in other words, inversely proportional to the fourth power of the light wavelength.

Rayleigh put forward a hypothesis according to which the centers that scatter light are air molecules. Later, already in the first half of the 20th century, it was established that the main role in light scattering is played by air density fluctuations - microscopic condensations and rarefactions of air that arise as a result of the chaotic thermal movement of air molecules.

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The disc on which the sound is recorded is made of a special soft wax material. A copper copy (cliché) is removed from this wax disk using a galvanoplastic method. This involves the deposition of pure copper on an electrode when an electric current passes through a solution of its salts. The copper copy is then imprinted onto plastic discs. This is how gramophone records are made.

When playing sound, a gramophone record is placed under a needle connected to the gramophone membrane, and the record is rotated. Moving along the wavy groove of the record, the end of the needle vibrates, and the membrane vibrates along with it, and these vibrations quite accurately reproduce the recorded sound.

Task 16

What vibrations does the horn membrane make under the influence of a sound wave?

5) free

6) fading

7) forced

8) self-oscillations

Correct answer: 3

Task 17

What current action is used to obtain a cliché from a wax disk?

1) magnetic

2) thermal

3) light

4) chemical

Correct answer: 4

Task 18

When recording sound mechanically, a tuning fork is used. By increasing the playing time of the tuning fork by 2 times

5) the length of the sound groove will increase by 2 times

6) the length of the sound groove will decrease by 2 times

7) the depth of the sound groove will increase by 2 times

8) the depth of the sound groove will decrease by 2 times

Correct answer: 1

Magnetic suspension

Average speed of trains railways does not exceed
150 km/h. Designing a train that can match the speed of an airplane is not easy. At high speeds, train wheels cannot withstand the load. There is only one way out: to abandon the wheels, making the train fly. One way to "suspend" a train above the tracks is to use magnetic repulsion.

In 1910, the Belgian E. Bachelet built the world's first model of a flying train and tested it. The 50-kilogram cigar-shaped carriage of the flying train accelerated to speeds of over 500 km/h! Bachelet's magnetic road was a chain of metal posts with coils attached to their tops. After turning on the current, the trailer with built-in magnets was raised above the coils and accelerated by the same magnetic field over which it was suspended.

Almost simultaneously with Bachelet in 1911, professor of the Tomsk Institute of Technology B. Weinberg developed a much more economical suspension for a flying train. Weinberg proposed not to push the road and the cars away from each other, which is fraught with enormous energy costs, but to attract them with ordinary electromagnets. The electromagnets of the road were located above the train in order to compensate for the gravity of the train with their attraction. The iron carriage was initially located not exactly under the electromagnet, but behind it. In this case, electromagnets were mounted along the entire length of the road. When the current in the first electromagnet was turned on, the trailer rose and moved forward, towards the magnet. But a moment before the trailer was supposed to stick to the electromagnet, the current was turned off. The train continued to fly by inertia, reducing its altitude. The next electromagnet turned on, the train rose again and accelerated. By placing his car in a copper pipe from which the air was pumped out, Weinberg accelerated the car to a speed of 800 km/h!

Task 16

Which of magnetic interactions can it be used for maglev?

A. Attraction of opposite poles.

B. Repulsion of like poles.

1) only A

2) only B

3) neither A nor B

Correct answer: 4

Task 17

When a maglev train moves

1) there are no friction forces between the train and the road

2) air resistance forces are negligible

3) electrostatic repulsion forces are used

4) the attractive forces of magnetic poles of the same name are used

Correct answer: 1

Task 18

In B. Weinberg's model of a magnetic train, it was necessary to use a trailer with a larger mass. In order for the new trailer to move as before, it is necessary

5) replace the copper pipe with an iron one

6) do not turn off the current in the electromagnets until the trailer “sticks”

7) increase the current in the electromagnets

8) install electromagnets along the length of the road at large intervals

Correct answer: 3

Piezoelectricity

In 1880, French scientists brothers Pierre and Paul Curie investigated the properties of crystals. They noticed that if a quartz crystal is compressed from both sides, then electric charges appear on its faces perpendicular to the direction of compression: positive on one face, negative on the other. Crystals of tourmaline, Rochelle salt, and even sugar have the same property. Charges on the crystal faces also arise when it is stretched. Moreover, if during compression a positive charge accumulated on the face, then during stretching a negative charge will accumulate on this face, and vice versa. This phenomenon was called piezoelectricity (from the Greek word "piezo" - press). A crystal with this property is called a piezoelectric. The Curie brothers later discovered that piezoelectric effect reversible: if opposite electric charges are created on the faces of a crystal, it will either shrink or stretch, depending on which face a positive charge is applied to and which a negative charge is applied to.

The action of widespread piezoelectric lighters is based on the phenomenon of piezoelectricity. The main part of such a lighter is a piezoelectric element - a ceramic piezoelectric cylinder with metal electrodes on the bases. Using a mechanical device, a short-term shock is applied to the piezoelectric element. In this case, opposite electric charges appear on its two sides, located perpendicular to the direction of action of the deforming force. The voltage between these sides can reach several thousand volts. The voltage is supplied via insulated wires to two electrodes located in the tip of the lighter at a distance of 3 - 4 mm from each other. The spark discharge that occurs between the electrodes ignites the mixture of gas and air.

Despite the very high voltages (~10 kV), experiments with a piezo lighter are completely safe, since even with a short circuit the current strength turns out to be negligible and safe for human health, as with electrostatic discharges when removing woolen or synthetic clothing in dry weather.

Task 16

Piezoelectricity is a phenomenon

1) the appearance of electric charges on the surface of crystals during their deformation

2) the occurrence of tensile and compressive deformation in crystals

3) passing electric current through the crystals

4) passage of a spark discharge during crystal deformation

Correct answer: 1

Task 17

Using a piezo lighter doesn't represent dangers because

7) the current strength is negligible

8) a current of 1 A is safe for humans

Correct answer: 3

Task 18

At the beginning of the 20th century, French scientist Paul Langevin invented an ultrasonic wave emitter. By charging the faces of a quartz crystal with electricity from a high-frequency alternating current generator, he found that the crystal oscillates at the frequency of the voltage change. The action of the emitter is based on

1) direct piezoelectric effect

2) inverse piezoelectric effect

3) the phenomenon of electrification under the influence of an external electric field

4) the phenomenon of electrification upon impact

Correct answer: 2

Construction of the Egyptian pyramids

The Pyramid of Cheops is one of the seven wonders of the world. There are still many questions about how exactly the pyramid was built.

Transporting, lifting and installing stones weighing tens and hundreds of tons was not an easy task.

In order to lift the stone blocks up, they came up with a very cunning method. Earthen ramps were erected around the construction site. As the pyramid grew, the ramps rose higher and higher, as if encircling the entire future building. Stones were dragged along the ramp on sleds in the same way as on the ground, helping themselves with levers. The angle of inclination of the ramp was very small - 5 or 6 degrees, because of this the length of the ramp grew to hundreds of meters. Thus, during the construction of the Pyramid of Khafre, the ramp connecting the upper temple with the lower one, with a difference in levels of more than 45 m, had a length of 494 m and a width of 4.5 m.

In 2007, French architect Jean-Pierre Houdin suggested that during the construction of the Cheops pyramid, ancient Egyptian engineers used a system of both external and internal ramps and tunnels. Houdin believes that only the lower one was built with the help of external ramps,
43-meter part (the total height of the Cheops pyramid is 146 meters). To lift and install the remaining blocks, a system of internal ramps arranged in a spiral was used. To do this, the Egyptians dismantled the external ramps and moved them inside. The architect is confident that the cavities discovered in 1986 in the thickness of the Cheops pyramid are tunnels into which ramps gradually turned.

Task 16

What type simple mechanisms refers to the ramp?

5) moving block

6) fixed block

8) inclined plane

Correct answer: 4

Task 17

Ramps include

5) freight elevator in residential buildings

6) crane boom

7) gate for raising water from the well

8) an inclined platform for vehicles to enter

Correct answer: 4

Task 18

If we neglect friction, then the ramp that connected the upper temple with the lower one during the construction of the Pyramid of Khafre made it possible to obtain a gain

5) about 11 times stronger

6) More than 100 times strength

7) in operation approximately 11 times

8) at a distance of approximately 11 times

Correct answer: 1

Albedo of the Earth

The temperature at the Earth's surface depends on the reflectivity of the planet - albedo. Surface albedo is the ratio of the energy flux of reflected solar rays to the energy flux of solar rays incident on the surface, expressed as a percentage or fraction of a unit. The Earth's albedo in the visible part of the spectrum is about 40%. In the absence of clouds it would be about 15%.

Albedo depends on many factors: the presence and condition of cloudiness, changes in glaciers, time of year, and, accordingly, precipitation. In the 90s of the 20th century, the significant role of aerosols - the smallest solid and liquid particles in the atmosphere - became obvious. When fuel is burned, gaseous sulfur and nitrogen oxides are released into the air; combining in the atmosphere with water droplets, they form sulfuric, nitric acids and ammonia, which then turn into sulfate and nitrate aerosols. Aerosols not only reflect sunlight, preventing it from reaching the Earth's surface. Aerosol particles serve as condensation nuclei for atmospheric moisture during cloud formation and, thus, contribute to an increase in cloudiness. And this, in turn, reduces the flow of solar heat to the earth's surface.

Transparency to sunlight in the lower layers of the earth's atmosphere also depends on fires. Due to fires, dust and soot rise into the atmosphere, which cover the Earth with a dense screen and increase the albedo of the surface.

Task 16

Surface albedo refers to

1) the total flux of solar rays incident on the Earth’s surface

2) the ratio of the energy flux of reflected radiation to the flux of absorbed radiation

3) the ratio of the energy flux of reflected radiation to the flux of incident radiation

4) the difference between the incident and reflected radiation energy

Correct answer: 3

Task 17

Which statements are true?

A. Aerosols reflect sunlight and thereby help reduce the Earth's albedo.

B. Volcanic eruptions increase the Earth's albedo.

1) only A

2) only B

4) neither A nor B

Correct answer: 2

Task 18

The table shows some characteristics for the planets of the solar system - Venus and Mars. It is known that the albedo of Venus is A = 0.76, and the albedo of Mars is A = 0.15. Which of the characteristics mainly influenced the difference in the albedo of the planets?

Characteristics	Venus	Mars
A. Average distance from the Sun, in radii of the Earth's orbit
B. Average radius of the planet, km
IN. Number of satellites
G. Presence of atmosphere	very dense	sparse

Correct answer: 4

Greenhouse effect

To determine the temperature of an object heated by the Sun, it is important to know its distance from the Sun. The closer a planet in the solar system is to the Sun, the higher its average temperature. For an object as distant from the Sun as the Earth, a numerical estimate of the average surface temperature gives the following result: T Å ≈ –15°C.

In reality, the Earth's climate is much milder. Its average surface temperature is about 18 °C due to the so-called greenhouse effect - heating of the lower part of the atmosphere by radiation from the Earth's surface.

Nitrogen (78%) and oxygen (21%) predominate in the lower layers of the atmosphere. The remaining components account for only 1%. But it is precisely this percentage that determines the optical properties of the atmosphere, since nitrogen and oxygen almost do not interact with radiation.

The “greenhouse” effect is known to everyone who has dealt with this simple garden structure. In the atmosphere it looks like this. Part of the solar radiation that is not reflected from the clouds passes through the atmosphere, which acts as glass or film, and heats the earth's surface. The heated surface cools down, emitting thermal radiation, but this is a different radiation - infrared. The average wavelength of such radiation is much longer than that coming from the Sun, and therefore the atmosphere, almost transparent to visible light, transmits infrared radiation much less well.

Water vapor absorbs about 62% infrared radiation, which contributes to heating of the lower layers of the atmosphere. Following water vapor on the list of greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide (CO2), which absorbs 22% of the Earth's infrared radiation in clear air.

The atmosphere absorbs the flow of long-wave radiation rising from the planet's surface, heats up and, in turn, heats the Earth's surface. The maximum in the solar radiation spectrum occurs at a wavelength of about 550 nm. The maximum in the Earth's radiation spectrum occurs at a wavelength of approximately 10 microns. The role of the greenhouse effect is illustrated in Figure 1.

Fig.1(a). Curve 1 - calculated spectrum of solar radiation (with a photosphere temperature of 6000°C); curve 2 - calculated spectrum of the Earth's radiation (with a surface temperature of 25°C)
Fig.1 (b). Absorption (in percentage terms) of radiation at different wavelengths by the earth's atmosphere. In the spectral region from 10 to 20 µm there are absorption bands of CO2, H2O, O3, CH4 molecules. They absorb radiation coming from the surface of the Earth

Task 16

Which gas plays the greatest role in greenhouse effect Earth's atmosphere?

10) oxygen

11) carbon dioxide

12) water vapor

Correct answer: 4

Task 17

Which of the following statements corresponds to the curve in Figure 1(b)?

A. Visible radiation, corresponding to the maximum of the solar spectrum, passes through the atmosphere almost unimpeded.

B. Infrared radiation with a wavelength exceeding 10 microns practically does not pass beyond the Earth's atmosphere.

5) only A

6) only B

8) neither A nor B

Correct answer: 3

Task 18

Thanks to the greenhouse effect

1) in cold cloudy weather, woolen clothing protects the human body from hypothermia

2) tea in a thermos remains hot for a long time

3) Sun rays passing through glass windows heats the air in the room

4) on a sunny summer day, the water temperature in reservoirs is lower than the temperature of the sand on the shore

Correct answer: 3

Human hearing

The lowest tone perceived by a person with normal hearing has a frequency of about 20 Hz. The upper limit of auditory perception varies greatly among different people. Age is of particular importance here. At the age of eighteen, with perfect hearing, you can hear sound up to 20 kHz, but on average the limits of audibility for any age lie in the range of 18 - 16 kHz. With age, the sensitivity of the human ear to high-frequency sounds gradually decreases. The figure shows a graph of the level of sound perception versus frequency for people of different ages.

Soreness" href="/text/category/boleznennostmz/" rel="bookmark">painful reactions. Transport or industrial noise has a depressing effect on a person - it tires, irritates, interferes with concentration. As soon as such noise stops, a person experiences a feeling of relief and peace .

A noise level of 20–30 decibels (dB) is practically harmless to humans. This is a natural noise background, without which it is impossible human life. For “loud sounds” the maximum permissible limit is approximately 80–90 decibels. A sound of 120–130 decibels already causes pain in a person, and at 150 it becomes unbearable for him. The effect of noise on the body depends on age, hearing sensitivity, and duration of action.

Long periods of continuous exposure to high-intensity noise are most harmful to hearing. After exposure to strong noise, the normal threshold of auditory perception noticeably increases, that is, the lowest level (loudness) at which a given person can still hear a sound of a particular frequency. Measurements of auditory perception thresholds are carried out in specially equipped rooms with a very low level of ambient noise, using sound signals through headphones. This technique is called audiometry; it allows you to obtain a curve of individual hearing sensitivity, or audiogram. Typically, audiograms show deviations from normal hearing sensitivity (see figure).

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Noise source

Noise level (dB)

A. working vacuum cleaner

B. noise in the subway car

IN. pop music orchestra

G. automobile

D. whisper at a distance of 1 m

8) B, B, D and A

Correct answer: 1

There are cold and hot air currents in the atmosphere. Where the warm layers are above the cold ones, air vortices are formed, under the influence of which the light rays are bent, and the position of the star changes.

The brightness of a star changes because rays that deviate incorrectly are concentrated unevenly over the surface of the planet. At the same time, the entire landscape is constantly shifting and changing due to atmospheric phenomena, for example, due to wind. The observer of the stars finds himself either in a more illuminated area, or, conversely, in a more shaded one.

If you want to watch the twinkling of stars, keep in mind that at the zenith, in a calm atmosphere, this phenomenon can only occasionally be detected. If you turn your gaze to celestial objects, located closer to the horizon, you will find that they flicker much more strongly. This is explained by the fact that you look at the stars through a denser layer of air, and, accordingly, penetrate a larger number of air currents with your gaze. You will not notice changes in the color of stars located at an altitude of more than 50°. But you will find frequent color changes in stars below 35°. Sirius flickers very beautifully, shimmering with all the colors of the spectrum, especially in the winter months, low above the horizon.

The strong twinkling of stars proves the heterogeneity of the atmosphere, which is associated with various meteorological phenomena. Therefore, many people think that flickering is related to the weather. It often gains strength at low atmospheric pressure, lower temperature, increased humidity, etc. But the state of the atmosphere depends on so many different factors that it is currently not possible to predict the weather from the twinkling stars.

This phenomenon keeps its mysteries and ambiguities. It is assumed that it intensifies at dusk. This could be an optical illusion or a consequence of unusual atmospheric changes that often occur at this time of day. It is believed that the twinkling of stars is caused by the northern lights. But this is very difficult to explain, given that the northern lights are located at an altitude of more than 100 km. In addition, it remains a mystery why white stars twinkle less than red ones.

Stars are suns. The first person to discover this truth was a scientist of Italian origin. Without any exaggeration, his name is known throughout the modern world. This is the legendary Giordano Bruno. He argued that among the stars there are similar to the Sun in size, temperature of their surface, and even color, which directly depends on temperature. In addition, there are stars that are significantly different from the Sun - giants and supergiants.

Table of ranks

The diversity of the countless stars in the sky forced astronomers to establish some order among them. To do this, scientists decided to divide the stars into appropriate classes of their luminosity. For example, stars that emit light several thousand times more than the Sun are called giants. In contrast, stars with minimal luminosity are dwarfs. Scientists have found that the Sun, according to this characteristic, is an average star.

do they light differently?

For a time, astronomers thought that stars shine differently because of their different locations from Earth. But it is not so. Astronomers have found that even those stars that are located at the same distance from the Earth can have completely different apparent brightness. This brightness depends not only on distance, but also on the temperature of the stars themselves. To compare stars by their apparent brightness, scientists use a specific unit of measurement - absolute magnitude. It allows us to calculate the real radiation of a star. Using this method, scientists have calculated that there are only 20 of the brightest stars in the sky.

Why are stars different colors?

It was written above that astronomers distinguish stars by their size and their luminosity. However, this is not their entire classification. Along with their size and apparent brightness, all stars are also classified according to their own color. The fact is that the light that defines this or that star has wave radiation. These are pretty short. Despite the minimum wavelength of light, even the smallest difference in the size of the light waves dramatically changes the color of the star, which directly depends on the temperature of its surface. For example, if you heat an iron frying pan, it will acquire the corresponding color.

The color spectrum of a star is a kind of passport that determines its most characteristics. For example, the Sun and Capella (a star similar to the Sun) were identified by astronomers as one and the same. Both of them have a pale yellow color and a surface temperature of 6000°C. Moreover, their spectrum contains the same substances: lines, sodium and iron.

Stars such as Betelgeuse or Antares generally have a characteristic red color. Their surface temperature is 3000°C, and they contain titanium oxide. White color have stars such as Sirius and Vega. Their surface temperature is 10000°C. Their spectra have hydrogen lines. There is also a star with a surface temperature of 30,000°C - this is the bluish-white Orionis.