A) Using opportunity cost, determine the suitability of these resources for the production of good X. b) Make a table and construct a production possibilities schedule, given that initially all resources are used to produce industrial goods (Y). Does the law of increasing opportunity costs apply in this case?

V) If 180 units are produced. t. Y and 100 units. t. X, is the use of resources efficient?

G) What is the problem of choice? How should resources be distributed to ensure the production of 140 units? t. X? 240 units t. X?

2. What is the difference between the concepts of “demand” and “quantity of demand”; "supply" and "supply quantity". Present the following situations graphically and provide explanations: A)“Increasing demand leads to increasing supply.” b)“Car prices have been rising for a number of years, but every year people buy more cars”: does this mean that the law of demand does not apply? V) As prices for video cameras fall, the demand for them increases. G) The growth of production in the construction industry has led to an increase in demand in the labor market for construction specialties. d) An increase in income leads to a decrease in demand for low-quality goods.

3. Explain, taking into account the elasticity of demand, for which of the listed goods it is profitable to increase the price and for which to reduce it:

A) sugar; b) oranges; V) cigarettes; G) jewelry; d) tickets to a rock star concert; e) cars; and) household appliances; h) basic food products.

4. The consumer spends $23 per week to purchase items A and items B.

A) Is this set an equilibrium? b) How should the consumer change the quantity of m. A and m. B to achieve equilibrium and maximize utility? V) How much will total utility increase at equilibrium set?

5. The consumer can purchase a maximum of 10 cassettes (t.X) or 15 magazines (t.U). Price P x ​​= $3. A) Determine consumer income I=? and the price of the product P Y =? b) Make a table of the consumer's budgetary capabilities taking into account the market rate of substitution N 3 xy and draw a graph. V) Complete the drawing with a map of indifference curves and determine the set corresponding to consumer equilibrium. G) Is the consumer's optimum achieved if the indifference schedule is given by the function Y=48/X? Y=54/X? Y=72/X?

6. An entrepreneur opened a workshop for repairing household appliances. He pays 0.5t for renting the premises. rubles, purchased the necessary tools and equipment for the amount of 10 thousand. rub. Previously, as a seller, he received 2.5 tons of rubles. Having gone into business, he began to receive income (accounting profit) in the amount of 4 thousand. rub. He estimates normal profit at 1.5 tons of rubles. The real bank interest rate is 10%.

A) What are its external and internal costs? Does he make an economic profit? b) How much income does he need to earn to remain in this line of business?

7. Based on the schedule, determine: A) What type of market does the firm operate in?

b) What production volume will the company choose in case of minimizing losses; profit maximization? V) Explain the rule of optimal production volume (profit maximization).

G) Explain, taking into account the values ​​​​that are marked on the graph, which is more profitable in case of losses: to continue production or to stop production? d) Calculate the amount of losses in one and another situation.

8. Demand function for monopoly Q D = 13- R. Make a table. Draw a graph. A) Determine the area of ​​elastic demand. What is the maximum volume the firm could produce as a rational entity? b) Determine the marginal revenue MR at various prices. Why, under monopoly conditions, MR and price P do not coincide?

V) The marginal cost function is MC=1+Q. Fixed costs are equal to FC = 10 dollars. Determine the profit-maximizing price and production volume. G) Explain why a monopoly is accused of inefficient use of resources and high prices? What volume and at what price could a competitive firm sell?

9. The company operates in conditions of perfect competition and produces products at a price of $2. Labor and capital are purchased at the price P L = 8 dollars and P C = 12 dollars.

A) Complete the table with the necessary indicators and determine the minimization of costs in the production of 56 units of product. b) Will producing 56 units produce maximum profit?

a) there is unemployment at a given wage rate;

b) the wage rate coincides with marginal costs;

c) everyone can find a job at a given wage rate;

d) the marginal return MRP (L) is equalized with the wage rate.

OPTION 15

1. There are three enterprises that produce parts of 2 types A and B. The first can produce a maximum of 50 units. A or 20 units. B, second - 40 units. A or 80 units. B, third – 60 units. A or 40 units. IN.

A) Using opportunity cost, determine which plant is more efficient in producing parts A; details B? b) Make a table and graph the production possibilities of these three enterprises. V) Does the law of increasing opportunity costs apply as product B increases?

2. The demand function for potatoes has the form Q d = 240-20P, and the supply function Q s = - 30+10P. Determine the equilibrium analytically, using a table, graphically. A) If, in the event of a crop failure, sellers offer 20 kg of potatoes, will they be able to sell this quantity at the current price? b) If not, how is equilibrium restored taking into account dynamic models of market equilibrium. Is the equilibrium stable in the long run? V) What factors influence changes in market equilibrium? G) What could be the consequences of government price regulation in this market?

3. Define true and false statements. To justify your answer, calculate the necessary indicators and illustrate graphically.

A. The price elasticity coefficient is 0.2. Sellers increased the price of goods by 10%. As a result of this decision: a) the quantity of demand increased, but revenue decreased; b) the quantity of demand decreased and revenue decreased; d) quantity demanded decreased, but revenue increased.

B. Considering the elasticity and inelasticity of demand, it is not profitable to reduce prices: a) for luxury goods; b) for essential goods; c) for goods that have substitutes.

IN. An increase in demand in the vegetable market a) in the shortest possible time will only lead to an increase in prices; supply is absolutely inelastic; b) in the long run, supply will increase and prices will decrease to the original level.

4. Based on the table, determine how many apples the consumer will buy:

A) if we know how marginal utility changes; b) if the price of apples is known P = 6 rubles; 8rub; 2 rubles? Explain based on the graph. Why is the marginal utility schedule the basis of the demand schedule? V) What is the consumer's gain and what does it equal, for example, at a price of 6 rubles?

5. Using the table data, construct an indifference graph.

Product y (units)
Product X units
MRS xy

A) Consumer income I = 32 rubles, and prices of goods P x = 2 rubles, P Y = 4 rubles. Make a table of budget possibilities and draw a budget line. Determine the equilibrium set and MRS XY at equilibrium. How will the consumer's equilibrium change if the price of a commodity? X will increase 2 times; price com. Y will decrease by 2 times; Will income I double or will prices and income double at the same time?

6. You left your job with a payment of 5000 rubles. and created their own company. We used our own funds in the amount of 40,000 rubles to purchase tools and equipment. The bank interest rate on deposits is 10%. Payment for raw materials amounted to 12,000 rubles, two employees were paid a salary of 10,000 rubles. At the end of the period, accounting profit amounted to 6,000 rubles. You determined the normal profit in the amount of 3000 rubles.

A) Determine the amount of total income; accounting and economic costs, economic profit. b) Is this enterprise profitable?

7. Calculate fixed, variable, and marginal costs using the input data. Draw a graph.

Product output, Q units.
Total costs, TC$

A) Explain the nature of changes in costs in the short term.

b) Why are the costs per unit of production very high at the beginning, with small volumes of production, and then, with significant volumes? V) If the market price is $7, can the firm make a profit? G) What is the best volume at a given price?

8. Monopoly sells the first unit of output at a price of $12. The number of sales increases by 1 unit. when the price changes by $1. The marginal cost of the first unit is MC=$2 and then increases by $1 for every one additional unit of output. Fixed costs FC=16. A) Determine the production volume and price at which profit is maximized. b) What is the difference between a monopoly and perfect competition? Why is a monopoly blamed for high prices and inefficient allocation of resources? What price and output would be typical for a competitive firm? V) What is the essence of government price regulation under monopoly conditions?

9. Using the concept of present value, determine in what cases is investing money profitable?

A. The company's investment in opening a new enterprise is 17 thousand. dollars Future income is 20 thousand dollars, the interest rate is 10% per annum. What is the present value of future income if it is expected to be received in one year? in two years? Is this project profitable?

B. The organization can make investments in the amount of 7000 dollars. The expected income at the end of the second year should be $10,000. The interest rate is 20% per annum. Which company will the organization provide funds, provided that:

For the first company, it initially issues $5,000. and at the beginning of the next 2000dol.

For the second company - initially issues 2000 dollars. and at the beginning of the next 5000dol.

10. The wage rate of the first employee in the monopsony market is 3 dollars and then increases by 1 dollar for each additional employee. A) Create a function and table of labor supply and marginal cost, draw a graph. b) How many workers will the company hire if the marginal return function MRP L = 17- 2L. How many workers, and at what wage rate, would be employed in a competitive environment? What are the labor market consequences of a union monopoly?

	Units of measurement	Conversion factors into t.e.f.
Metallurgical coke
Coal
Oil shale
Peat fuel
Firewood for heating
Oil, gas condensate
Flammable natural gas
Coal briquettes
Peat briquettes
Fuel oil
Household heating fuel
Coke gas
Blast furnace gas
Associated gas, dry
Liquefied gas
Diesel fuel
Gasoline for automobiles
Petroleum bitumen
Electricity	thousand kWh
Thermal energy

Tonne of fuel equivalent (t.e.f.) is a unit of energy measurement equal to 29.3 MJ/kg; is defined as the amount of energy released during the combustion of 1 ton of fuel with a calorific value of 7000 kcal/kg (corresponding to the typical calorific value of coal).

Fuel savings from the use of combustible VERs are determined by the formula:

Kg.f., (3.3.3)

where is the heat of combustible renewable energy resources used during the calculation period (decade, month, quarter, year);

–heat of combustion of equivalent fuel, =29.3 MJ/kg;

ή 1 – fuel utilization factor (FUF) in the furnace when operating on combustible SER;

ή 2 – KIT in the furnace when operating on substituted fuel.

The amount of fuel savings when using waste heat boilers can be determined by the formula:

Kg.t. , (3.3.4)

where is the heat of exhaust gases passing through the waste heat boiler during the period of calculating fuel economy;

–thermal efficiency waste heat boiler, p.u.;

–thermal efficiency fuel boiler replaced by waste heat boiler, p.u.

In ferrous metallurgy, up to 10% of imported fuel (natural gas, fuel oil, coal) is saved annually through the use of thermal renewable energy sources. The amount of thermal energy generated through the utilization of renewable energy resources in the overall balance of consumption of metallurgical plants is 30%, and at some plants up to 70%.

Utilization of the heat of hot coke. The heat of hot coke is used in dry coke quenching units (DCT), see Fig. 3.3.9.

Rice. 3.3.9. Schematic diagram of a dry coke quenching installation.

Legend for Figure 3.3.8:

1 – hot coke supply unit; 2 – output of cooled coke; 3 – dry extinguishing chamber, which includes (positions 4-7: 4 – prechamber for receiving hot coke; 5 – oblique gas channels for gas outlet; 6 – dry extinguishing zone; 7 – gas supply and gas distribution device; 8 – dust settling chamber; 9 – waste heat boiler (positions 10-16): 11 – economizer; 13 – circulation pump; 15 – superheater; sedimentation cyclone; 18 – exhauster, providing circulation of cooling gas; 19 – removal of coke breeze and dust.

Usagegas recovery non-compressor turbines.

Gas recovery non-compressor turbines (GUBT) are turboexpanders operating on excess gas pressure generated during the smelting of cast iron in blast furnaces and during gas reduction on main gas pipelines. The first metallurgical plant in world practice to implement a project with a GUBT with a 6 MW radial turbine was the Magnitogorsk Iron and Steel Works. In 2002, at OJSC Severstal, at a blast furnace of 5500 m 3, GUBT-25, jointly developed and manufactured by Nevsky Plant CJSC and the German company Zimmerman and Janzen, was put into operation.

From the point of view of energy saving in the gas transportation system, the utilization of energy from excess pressure of natural gas in a turboexpander is very promising today. In the gas industry, turboexpanders are used for:

1) starting a gas turbine installation of a gas pumping unit, as well as turning its rotor when stopped (for the purpose of cooling it); in this case, the turboexpander operates on the transported gas and releases it after the turbine into the atmosphere;

2) cooling of natural gas (as it expands in a turbine) in liquefaction plants;

3) cooling of natural gas in installations for its “field” preparation for transport through the pipeline system (moisture removal by freezing it, etc.).

4) driving a high-pressure compressor to supply gas to peak storage facilities;

5) generation of electricity at gas distribution stations (GDS) of the natural gas transport system to its consumers using a gas pressure difference between high and low pressure pipelines in the turbine.

According to experts, there are about 600 facilities in the Russian Federation - gas distribution stations and hydraulic fracturing stations, which have the conditions for the construction and operation of turboexpanders with a capacity of 1-3 MW, which can generate up to 15 billion kWh of electricity per year.

• US ton (short ton) = 907.18474 kilograms.
• English ton (long ton) = 1016.0469088 kilograms.
• A registered ton is a unit used in shipping to measure the volume of space that can be occupied by a payload. Equal to 2.83 m³.
• Freight ton is a unit of measurement of freight size. For heavy and compact cargo it is 1016.0469088 kg, and for light and bulky cargo it is 1.12 m³.

Multiples and submultiples

Factor	Name	Sign		Multiplier (SI)	Name	Sign		Factor	Name	Sign		Multiplier (SI)	Name	Sign
10 0	ton	t/t		10 6	megagram	Mg/Mg		10 0	ton	t/t		10 6	megagram	Mg/Mg
10 1	decaton	dat		10 7	(No)	(No)		10 −1	decitonne (centner)	dt / dt		10 5	(No)	(No)
10²	hectoton	gt/ht		10 8	(No)	(No)		10 −2	centiton	st/ct		10 4	(No)	(No)
10³	kiloton	kt / kt		10 9	gigagram	Gg / Gg		10 −3	milliton	mt/mt		10³	kilogram	kg / kg
10 6	megaton	Mt/Mt		10 12	teragram	Tg / Tg		10 −6	microton	mkt / µt		10 0	gram	g/g
10 9	gigaton	Gt/Gt		10 15	petagram	Pg / Pg		10 −9	nanoton	nt / nt		10 −3	milligram	mg/mg
10 12	teraton	Tt/Tt		10 18	exagram	Eg / Eg		10 −12	picoton	fri/pt		10 −6	microgram	µg/µg
10 15	petatone	Fri / Pt		10 21	zettagram	Zg / Zg		10 −15	femtoton	ft / ft		10 −9	nanogram	ng / ng
10 18	exaton	Et / Et		10 24	yottagram	Yg / Yg		10 −18	attotonic	at/at		10 −12	picograms	pg / pg
10 21	zettaton	Zt / Zt		10 27	(No)	(No)		10 −21	zeptotone	zt / zt		10 −15	femtogram	fg / fg
10 24	yottatton	It / Yt		10 30	(No)	(No)		10 −24	ioctoton	it/yt		10 −18	attogram	ag / ag

• The “Sign” columns show Russian and international designations
• In reality, only a few units in the first column are used (the ton itself, as well as the kiloton, megaton and gigaton are often used to denote TNT equivalent). Submix prefixes corresponding to decimal factors less than one are never used with a ton. The unit of mass in the International System of Units is the kilogram, and the gram is used to form multiples and submultiples. A mass of 10,000 grams would be referred to as 10 kilograms (kg) rather than 10 millitons, and a mass of 0.000000005 grams would be referred to as 5 nanograms (ng) rather than 5 femtotons.

Units of mass

Dry ton also refers to a mass, but of a substance that has been dried to a relatively low, consistent moisture content level (net mass). Can be used for substances such as sludge, pulp, compost and similar mixtures in which hard material soaked in water or dissolved in water. If the substance is in its natural, wet state, the name "ton of wet material" is used.

Common abbreviations

In the US mining industry, the capital "T" abbreviation is used to separate the traditional ton from the metric ton, but "T" can also be an abbreviation for "tesla". The abbreviation lowercase "t" is traditionally used for both the English and US ton, as well as the metric ton.

The capital letter "T" was formerly used also to denote ton-force, while the lowercase letter "t" denoted ton as a unit of mass.

Units of force

Volume units

A ton displacement is a unit of volume used to calculate the displacement of a ship. When displacement refers to the carrying capacity of a ship, they mean the volume of water displaced by the ship, multiplied by its density and measured in English tons (tons of displacement). A ton of displacement is a volume of water weighing one ton. This is equivalent to about 0.97 m³ of water.

One freight ton is about 1.13 m³. It shows the volume of a truck, train or other means of transportation. Previously used for ships, now a registered ton is used, which corresponds to 2.83 m³.

Previously, the unit of measurement used in the UK was the water ton, which was equivalent to 1.02 m³. This was the volume occupied by the mass of one English ton of water.

Energy units

• ton of TNT equivalent - a unit of energy equal to 4.184⋅10 9 J or 10 9 thermochemical calories (one gigacalorie); is defined as the amount of energy released by the detonation of 1 ton of trinitrotoluene (TNT). The detonation of a kiloton or megaton of TNT releases 4.184⋅10 12 or 4.184⋅10 15 J, respectively. TNT equivalent measurements can be used to describe the force of nuclear weapons or in seismology.
• ton of standard fuel (t.e.t.) - a unit of energy measurement equal to 2.93⋅10 10 J; is defined as the amount of energy released during the combustion of 1 ton of fuel with a calorific value of 7000 kcal/kg (corresponding to the typical calorific value

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1 milligram [mg] = 1E-09 ton [t]

Initial value

Converted value

kilogram gram exagram petagram teragram gigagram megagram hectogram decagram decigram centigram milligram microgram nanogram picogram femtogram attogram dalton, atomic mass unit kilogram-force square. sec./meter kilopound kilopound (kip) slug pound-force square. sec/foot pound troy pound ounce troy ounce metric ounce short ton long (English) ton assay ton (US) assay ton (Imperial) ton (metric) kiloton (metric) quintal (metric) quintal American quintal British quarter (US) quarter (British) stone (USA) stone (British) ton pennyweight scruple carat gran gamma talent (Dr. Israel) mina (Dr. Israel) shekel (Dr. Israel) bekan (Dr. Israel) gera (Dr. Israel) talent (Ancient Greece) mina (Ancient Greece) tetradrachm (Ancient Greece) didrachm (Ancient Greece) drachma (Ancient Greece) denarius (Ancient Rome) ass (Ancient Rome) codrant (Ancient Rome) lepton ( Dr. Rome) Planck mass atomic mass unit rest mass of an electron rest mass of a muon proton mass neutron mass deuteron mass mass of the Earth mass of the Sun Berkovets pud Pound lot spool share quintal livre

More about mass

General information

Mass is the property of physical bodies to resist acceleration. Mass, unlike weight, does not change depending on environment and does not depend on the gravitational force of the planet on which this body is located. Mass m determined using Newton's second law, according to the formula: F = ma, Where F- this is strength, and a- acceleration.

Mass and weight

The word “weight” is often used in everyday life when people talk about mass. In physics, weight, in contrast to mass, is a force acting on a body due to the attraction between bodies and planets. Weight can also be calculated using Newton's second law: P= mg, Where m is the mass, and g- free fall acceleration. This acceleration occurs due to the gravitational force of the planet near which the body is located, and its magnitude also depends on this force. The acceleration of free fall on Earth is 9.80665 meters per second, and on the Moon it is approximately six times less - 1.63 meters per second. Thus, a body weighing one kilogram weighs 9.8 newtons on Earth and 1.63 newtons on the Moon.

Gravitational mass

Gravitational mass shows what gravitational force acts on a body (passive mass) and what gravitational force the body acts on other bodies (active mass). When increasing active gravitational mass body, its force of attraction also increases. It is this force that controls the movement and location of stars, planets and other astronomical objects in the universe. Tides are also caused by the gravitational forces of the Earth and Moon.

With increase passive gravitational mass the force with which the gravitational fields of other bodies act on this body also increases.

Inert mass

Inertial mass is the property of a body to resist movement. It is precisely because a body has mass that a certain force must be applied to move the body from its place or change the direction or speed of its movement. The greater the inertial mass, the greater the force required to achieve this. Mass in Newton's second law is precisely inertial mass. The gravitational and inertial masses are equal in magnitude.

Mass and relativity

According to the theory of relativity, gravitating mass changes the curvature of the space-time continuum. The greater the mass of a body, the stronger the curvature around this body, therefore, near bodies of large mass, such as stars, the trajectory of light rays is bent. This effect in astronomy is called gravitational lenses. On the contrary, far from large astronomical objects (massive stars or their clusters called galaxies), the movement of light rays is linear.

The main postulate of the theory of relativity is the postulate that the speed of propagation of light is finite. Several interesting consequences follow from this. Firstly, one can imagine the existence of objects with such a large mass that the second cosmic velocity of such a body will be equal to the speed of light, i.e. no information from this object will be able to reach the outside world. Such space objects V general theory relativity are called “black holes” and their existence has been experimentally proven by scientists. Secondly, when an object moves at near-light speed, its inertial mass increases so much that local time inside the object slows down compared to time. measured by stationary clocks on Earth. This paradox is known as the “twin paradox”: one of them goes into space flight at near-light speed, the other remains on Earth. Upon returning from the flight twenty years later, it turns out that the twin astronaut is biologically younger than his brother!

Units

Kilogram

In the SI system, mass is expressed in kilograms. The kilogram is determined based on the exact numerical value of Planck's constant h, equal to 6.62607015×10⁻³⁴, expressed in J s, which is equal to kg m² s⁻¹, with the second and meter being determined by exact values c and Δ ν Cs. The mass of one liter of water can be approximately considered equal to one kilogram. The derivatives of kilogram, gram (1/1000 of a kilogram) and ton (1000 kilograms) are not SI units, but are widely used.

Electron-volt

Electronvolt is a unit for measuring energy. It is usually used in the theory of relativity, and energy is calculated using the formula E=mc², where E- this is energy, m- mass, and c- speed of light. According to the principle of equivalence of mass and energy, the electronvolt is also a unit of mass in the system of natural units, where c is equal to unity, which means mass equals energy. Electrovolts are mainly used in nuclear and atomic physics.

Atomic mass unit

Atomic mass unit ( A. e.m.) is intended for masses of molecules, atoms, and other particles. One a. e.m. is equal to 1/12 the mass of a carbon nuclide atom, ¹²C. This is approximately 1.66 × 10 ⁻²⁷ kilograms.

Slug

Slugs are used primarily in the British Imperial system in Great Britain and some other countries. One slug is equal to the mass of a body that moves with an acceleration of one foot per second per second when a force of one pound-force is applied to it. This is approximately 14.59 kilograms.

Solar mass

Solar mass is a measure of mass used in astronomy to measure stars, planets and galaxies. One solar mass is equal to the mass of the Sun, that is, 2 × 10³⁰ kilograms. The mass of the Earth is approximately 333,000 times less.

Carat

Carats measure the weight of precious stones and metals in jewelry. One carat is equal to 200 milligrams. The name and the size itself are associated with the seeds of the carob tree (in English: carob, pronounced “carob”). One carat used to be equal to the weight of the seed of this tree, and buyers carried their seeds with them to check whether they were being deceived by sellers of precious metals and stones. Gold coin weight in Ancient Rome was equal to 24 carob seeds, and therefore carats began to be used to indicate the amount of gold in the alloy. 24 karat is pure gold, 12 karat is half gold alloy, and so on.

Grand

The grain was used as a measure of weight in many countries before the Renaissance. It was based on the weight of grains, mainly barley, and other popular crops at the time. One grain is equal to about 65 milligrams. This is a little more than a quarter of a carat. Until carats became widespread, grains were used in jewelry. This measure of weight is still used to this day to measure the mass of gunpowder, bullets, arrows, and gold foil in dentistry.

Other units of mass

In countries where the metric system is not adopted, the British Imperial system is used. For example, in the UK, USA and Canada, pounds, stones and ounces are widely used. One pound is equal to 453.6 grams. Stones are used mainly only to measure human body weight. One stone is approximately 6.35 kilograms or exactly 14 pounds. Ounces are primarily used in cooking recipes, especially for foods in small portions. One ounce is 1/16 of a pound, or approximately 28.35 grams. In Canada, which formally adopted the metric system in the 1970s, many products are sold in rounded imperial units, such as one pound or 14 fluid ounces, but are labeled with weight or volume in metric units. In English, such a system is called “soft metric” (English). soft metric), in contrast to the “rigid metric” system (eng. hard metric), in which the rounded weight in metric units is indicated on the package. This image shows "soft metric" food packaging, showing weight in metric units only and volume in both metric and imperial units.

Do you find it difficult to translate units of measurement from one language to another? Colleagues are ready to help you. Post a question in TCTerms and within a few minutes you will receive an answer.