The ideology of the feudal monarchy in the era of Ivan IV the Terrible: views on the problem. And the existence of the feudal monarchy

2.1. "Domostroy" priest Sylvester

The positive attitude towards capital on the part of those in power and influential layers in general, which began in Kievan Rus, continued in Muscovite Rus. Here the initial predisposition to the activity of merchant capital soon turns into an apology for great household economy, i.e. in an apology for the boyar way of life, in praise of the boyar estate. The wealthy classes of Muscovite Rus' openly preach gradual accumulation and enrichment. It clearly manifested itself in a number of characteristic monuments. Ahead of the others is a valuable monument of the 16th century, the famous “Domostroy”, the work of the Moscow archpriest Sylvester. This characteristic work, like a mirror, fully reflected the worldview of the 16th century and that typical class ideology of the boyars, which expressed the interests and aspirations of the most important class of Moscow Rus', the class of large landowners.

The economic policy of Domostroy is not complicated. Minute details concerning household items affect the entire everyday life of a wealthy household. Here are the rules for “prudent and cooperative living” of family members and servants, instructions on the order of serving food and preserving dishes and clothes, supplies, etc. The main principles are economy, thrift and thrift. Expenses must be consistent with means, “every person, rich or poor, should judge himself and set his own standards.” Without this there is “great dishonor”, ​​“reproach” and “reproach”. The main management of the house lies with the mistress, a caring and tireless leader of the house.

“Domostroy” includes a special, final chapter, called the Small Domostroy, which concludes Sylvester’s instructions to his son Anfim. This is, apparently, the only genuine part of the composition of the priest Sylvester himself, the rest is a compilation compiled for a rich Novgorod house of the 15th or 16th centuries. By its nature, “Domostroy” comes closest to the medieval French “Domostroy” - “Admonition of a French bourgeois to his son.” “Domostroy” is a monument to a closed household. He does not know the national economy as a whole. The material life of his subjects then constituted another branch of the personal economy of the ruler, who, following the example of all medieval princes, viewed the country as his personal estate. Therefore, “Domostroy” could only represent a set of rules for home economy, the principles of which, like the principles of private economy, are antagonistic to social and economic interests. At the same time, Domostroy gives us a picture of a large closed and self-sufficient semi-feudal economy, in which the needs have already been largely developed. What small peasant farming was like in this era is not visible from this monument. “Domostroy” does not know the peasantry at all; its rules are not suitable for rural farming, but only for the household management of the “elect”, for the large landowner. Only a prince and a great boyar, with the gluttonous mood of a future serf-owner, the “father” of large estates and many households, could draw wisdom from the teachings of the Moscow archpriest. “Domostroy” is a typical expression of the class ideology of the Russian medieval landowner.

In its content and in the nature of its presentation, Domostroy is a simple summary of practical recipes and advice, not without guile, imbued with the spirit of petty hoarding and alarming suspicion, which are confidentially expressed to close people in a moment of frankness by a clever exploiter, a representative of the era of primitive accumulation. Purely economic issues occupy 23 chapters in the third part of Domostroy - “about the construction of a house”, which is about one third of the entire book.

“Domostroy” is not old: the oldest copy of its first part, according to paleography, dates back to the first half of the 16th century, and only the second was written, perhaps a century earlier. Its tendencies indicate the same thing: Domostroy is true to its era - it is bureaucratic and bourgeois. Its first half was compiled, as can be seen from the instructions of a specialist researcher, at the beginning of the 16th century or at the end of the 15th century, and, moreover, an ardent supporter of strengthening the royal power of the Moscow state; the second was written no later than the 15th century by a wealthy Novgorodian, who exchanged the alarming freedom of the vechevik for the well-fed calmness of the royal slave. Judging by a significant number of lists, the Moscow nobility read Domostroy, but in the St. Petersburg era it was already completely forgotten. This monument became known again from the time of its first printing, i.e. since the 1840s, after which Domostroy was reprinted several times.

So, “Domostroy” is a typical example of the Moscow autocracy and all the tendencies of pre-Petrine Rus', which were fundamentally alienated from the aspirations for political freedom and any kind of citizenship.

“The way of education,” as Fletcher 5 says, “alien to any thorough education and citizenship and recognized by the authorities as the best for the state and completely consistent with the way of government,” imposed its indelible sadness on everything, at the same time increasing the contrast with the West. And indeed, in that era when the bold thought of a European was already formulating a high social ideal, at a time when many of the militant mottos and theses of our time were becoming popular in the West, our “best people” reverently repeated the dubious provisions of the wretched and hypocritical wisdom of servile clerks.

So, “Domostroy” is a monument to the transitional era. It, of course, cannot be called a “monument to the economic ideology of urban craft farming,” as Professor M.N. incorrectly does. Pokrovsky 6; This essay sets out the ideology of the leader of a large natural economy, which was transforming from a closed, oikos economy into a commercial and industrial one, which represented the first arena for the accumulation of commercial capital. Sylvester is the direct predecessor of future Russian mercantilists; he is the ideologist of rural large landownership, already gravitating towards the market, where its “surplus” is sold. Primary accumulation, from which the development of the first stages of commercial capital begins, from that time on is being introduced into the thickness and course of Russian life.

2.2. Filaret's theory of the Third Rome and nationalist reaction: the emergence of mercantilism

As already mentioned, “Domostroy” established only the ideology of a separate isolated feudal-boyar economy, but did not yet rise to the level of understanding of national and national tasks. As the Moscow state grows and strengthens, new, already national, tasks are also put forward, especially since in essence they represented only an expansion of the boundaries of the economic unit: from the boyar’s estate to the grand-ducal, royal estate, in which the principles of management and the psychology of awareness were the same. The Grand Duke of Moscow, and then the Tsar of All Rus', considered himself as the personal owner of his land, his patrimony. The idea of ​​central historical power and historical mission, introduced by the Byzantines who arrived with Princess Palaeologus, who became the wife of Tsar John III, appears and strengthens. The nascent monarchy sought to defeat its feudal rivals, gain a foothold on the wealthy masses, the prototype of the European bourgeoisie, and create its own economic and political ideology.

This was reflected in the anonymous legends of the 15th century “About the Kingdom of Babylon” and “About the White Cowl”, which had a deep historical and philosophical meaning for that time. Here, not only was statehood realized, but Russian statehood was exalted, idealized and brought to the level of world historical significance, which has its own highest tasks. The latter appeared as a result of the fall of Constantinople, once the world center and at the same time the main center of the Eastern Church, at the end of the 15th century. With the transfer of the religious center to Moscow, the thought naturally arose about political continuity, and, consequently, about Moscow inheriting world domination from Byzantium. This idea formed the basis of a whole series of new ideas of a historical and philosophical and, moreover, ultra-nationalistic nature, and received literary expression in the messages of the monarch, Elder Philotheus, who set out a whole historical and philosophical theory about Moscow as the “Third Rome”. Elder Philotheus is a major historical figure who appeared in Russian history at the very beginning of the 16th century. Elder Philotheus was a hermit - a monk of the Pskov Eleazar Monastery, who developed in a certain and confident form the idea of ​​​​pan-Russism and God's chosenness of Russia. These views are set out in three of his messages - in general, he wrote a lot and willingly - addressed to the Grand Duke of Moscow Vasily Ivanovich, to the important Pskov clerk Misyura-Munekhin and to the Moscow Tsar Ivan IV (the Terrible). These messages, now published, were written by Elder Philotheus with the goal of interceding for his fellow Pskovites, who lost their political independence in 1510. The former free and trading city, which, like Novgorod, had an independent republican physiognomy, was now oppressed by Moscow governors, centralists - bureaucrats. Philotheus’s letter to the clerk Misyura - Munekhin had, among other things, the purpose of speaking out against the “heretics” - astrologers, or “astrologers”, and against the Latians in general, and also to stand up for Orthodoxy, of which Philotheus considered himself a faithful guardian. Philotheus believes that the destinies of both people and nations are determined and directed by God's providence, the source of world truth on earth. According to God's providence and according to the predictions of the prophecies (Daniel and others), old Rome, the great center of the first world empire, fell. Rome fell into the heresy of Apollinaris and served the liturgy on unleavened bread, i.e. changed the orthodox church. The “Second Rome”, Byzantium or Constantinople, also did not keep the covenants of religion: it betrayed Orthodoxy at the 8th Council and entered into a union with the Latins. As a result, the Second Rome fell and “became the property of the grandchildren of Hagar.” Only the glorious cathedral church of the Dormition of the Mother of God in Moscow, the God-saved city of “all new and great Rus',” remains unharmed. This is the Third and last Rome, “the third and indestructible kingdom of Ramaean.” The Third Rome is a Russian shrine, shining throughout the entire universe with its piety, brighter than the sun. The Third Rome is the last center in the historical existence of mankind. There will never be a Fourth Rome. In the consistent course of the historical life of peoples, all Orthodox Christian kingdoms fell and merged into one Russian kingdom, the last world kingdom, after which, at the end of the world, will come the eternal kingdom of Christ. Thus, for the first time, the idea of ​​Russia’s global vocation was formulated, God’s providence foretelling the future of the Russian Church and the Russian state. This idea of ​​the world greatness of the Russian kingdom is expressed in the following words: “In the whole of heaven there is one Christian king and holder of the reins and of God’s saints. The one holy universal apostolic church, instead of the Roman and Constantinople churches, is located in the God-saved city of Moscow.”

This formula has become very widespread. Moscow is called the Third Rome in all the most important acts of that time: in the charter establishing the patriarchate in Russia, and in the letter of the first Moscow Patriarch Job to the Georgian Tsar Alexander, and in a number of others. The idea of ​​the Third Rome already creates a certain direction and outlines a certain program, even more - it obliges.

Elder Philotheus, in his message addressed to the Grand Duke of Moscow Vasily Ivanovich, points out the worldwide nature of his power. “Yes, the news of your power, pious king, is that the entire kingdom of the Orthodox Christian faith has descended into your one kingdom, you alone are the king of all Christians under heaven.” But this extraordinary mission of the Moscow Tsar must take place in conditions of strict morality. “It is fitting for you, king,” Philotheus further says, “to hold this with the fear of God. Fear God, who gave you this: do not trust in gold, in wealth, in glory; “All this is gathered here and the lands will remain here.” Moscow, according to Filofey, is the last world monarchy in the history of mankind. There was a lot of fuss about this idea, or rather this theory, in Moscow. It was important as a vivid symptom of the awareness of statehood, as the first sprout of national feeling.

2.3. The first theorist of bureaucratic monarchism Ivan Peresvetov, ideologist of the local nobility

There is an assumption about Peresvetov that he is a mythical collective personality, but if he really existed, then he was a native of Lithuania, who traveled and wrote a lot. In any case, what was called “Ivanets Semenov son of Peresvetov” is a typical exponent of the ideas and interests of the nobility, i.e. economically small and medium-sized landowners. The latter is closely connected with autocracy, which in that era rested on the serving nobility and naturally struggled with its political limiters, i.e. with the boyars. Hence the fiery hatred of the ideologist of the nobility Peresvetov towards the boyars.

Peresvetov outlined his ideas in a number of works, of which the most valuable is “Tales of Tsar Constantine.” Here the author praises the East and sees an instructive example of political wisdom in the East. His hero is the Turkish Sultan. Boyars and nobles, according to Peresvetov, always “sat like snakes” and relied on numerous servitude. If, according to Peresvetov, the enslaved people are released, then the boyars themselves can be weakened. That. he is an opponent of slavery, believing that “a person can only be a slave to God.” With freedom, in his opinion, personal courage manifests itself, a quality so necessary “for the defense of the state.”

In the era of Peresvetov, the economic crisis ruined the boyars, and in Rus' there was a natural struggle for workers. The nobles, meanwhile, were paid in land, not in salaries. And the mature, consistent bureaucratic centralism demanded payment for labor in wages, not in land. This salary was supposed to compensate for merit, not origin. The boyars did not correspond to all this. “There are many nobles,” says Peresvetov, “but little use.” Such, in his opinion, should be “inflicted with fire and other cruel deaths, so that evil does not multiply.” Our preacher of the monarchy, supported by the petty nobility, did not leave behind a thoughtful and complete theory of absolutism, which we see in Jean Bodin. He differs unfavorably from his European brother, who understands that autocracy can become a source of enslavement and humiliation of the country, and knows the limits of autocratic power. His monarch obeys the “laws of nature,” which provide his subjects with “natural freedom.” Such a system, in his opinion, is a royal monarchy. The lack of freedom for subjects to dispose of their person and property is another system of organizing the eastern monarchy, found in ancient Persia and Muscovy. We have the lowest and most negative form in the third system, the system of tyrannical monarchy. All laws are simply flouted here. The monarch’s assistant in governing the country is religion, but it often diverges from the truth, and the truth, Peresvetov explains, is “above faith.” This is the ideology of a Moscow publicist who does not know that in the West the core of his ideas is developing into a theory of limiting autocratic power.

3. SPECIFIC FEATURES OF RUSSIAN ECONOMIC THOUGHT

The history of the development of Russian economic thought is characterized by the following specific features. Firstly, most of the works of Russian economists are highly characterized by the spirit of social and economic reformism. This is explained both by the internal conditions of the country’s development and by the strong influence of Marxism on all currents of Russian economic thought since the second half of the nineteenth century.
Secondly, for the majority of Russian economists, the peasant question and the whole complex of related socio-economic problems are of particular importance.
Thirdly, Russian economic thought has always attached great importance to social consciousness, ethics, the active role of politics, in other words, to non-economic factors. We can name a number of Russian traditions and features that will better help us understand the specifics of Russian economic thought. It is well known that in Russia, unlike Central and Western Europe, Roman property law, based on a well-organized base of legal codes, did not receive legal recognition. It was there that the centuries-old culture of private property developed such qualities of the economic personality as economic individualism and economic rationalism. In Russia, for many centuries, the economy was based not on private property, but on a peculiar combination of communal use of land and the power of the state, acting as the supreme owner. This had a significant impact on the attitude towards the institution of private property, leaving a corresponding moral and ethical imprint on it. Russian people tend to believe that “man is above the principle of property.” It is no coincidence that in the Russian mentality the idea of ​​“natural law,” which is the basis of Western European civilization, was replaced by the ideals of virtue, justice and truth. This determines Russian social morals and economic behavior. And therefore the phenomenon of the “repentant nobility” is a purely Russian feature. Another Russian tradition is a penchant for utopian thinking, the desire to think not in realities, but in images of the desired future. Connected with this is the tradition of relying on “maybe”, a dislike for precise calculations, and strict business organization. A characteristic feature of the Russian mentality is also the desire for conciliarity (the voluntary unification of people for general actions regardless of property and class inequality) and solidarity, which are realized in collective forms of labor and property ownership.
As for Russian economic traditions, despite their diversity, over the centuries they have developed around two axial lines: the tradition of nationalization and the tradition of community. Centralized regulation and social guarantees are the most important forms of their manifestation. As for the traditions of small and medium-sized businesses, pre-revolutionary Russia as a national tradition they were just emerging. But large-scale entrepreneurship has existed since ancient times and from the very beginning it gravitated towards the treasury - the princely, and then the state.

CONCLUSION

So, the lag social development Russia from Western Europe also affected the development of its economic thought, although it is worth noting that this gap was gradually narrowing. Thus, the ideas of mercantilism, which had been developing in the West since the 15th century, began to spread in Russia only in the middle of the 17th century, during the reign of Alexei Mikhailovich. Their guide was A. Ordin - Nashchokin. However, the concept of mercantilism did not become dominant in Russia due to the insignificant role of foreign trade in its national economy.

Changes in the economic life of the emerging single centralized state - Muscovite Rus' - caused, as always and everywhere, a dual attitude: one part of the population welcomed innovations that led to rapprochement with novelty and, ultimately, with the West; others condemned the new and sought to retain the old life, to return to it, in a word, to the old forms. Rationalistic sects - the heresy of the Strigolniks and the heresy of the Judaizers, and later the ideological position of the “Trans-Volga elders” was the monk Vassian Kosoy (Prince Vasily Ivanovich) Patrikeev, a student of Nil Sorsky and a like-minded person of the enlightened Maxim the Greek. He stood for the secularization of monastic property and demanded a humane attitude towards dissidents. For correcting books, he was convicted in 1531 and exiled to a monastery. A different position is held by the more numerous conservative camp, the so-called “Josephites”, led by Metropolitan Daniel and Joseph Volotsky, to whom priest Sylvester’s “Domostroy” is ideologically aligned.

B. Malinovsky

5. From “The Lay on Idols”... “The Lay on Idols,” directed against paganism, is a monument of ancient Russian literature of the ___ century.

7. From Confucius: “When the state is governed with reason, poverty and want are shameful; when the state is not governed according to reason, then wealth and honor are shameful.” The main keepers of the Confucian precepts were...

Officials

4. courtiers

10. From the work of J.-F. Lyotard “Notes on the Margins of Narratives”... In the work of J.-F. Lyotard is talking about _________ modernity.

The end

2. refusal

3. exception

4. editing

12.From the work of J.-F. Lyotard “Notes on the Margins of Narratives”... According to J.-F. Lyotard, the current state of society is characterized by...

1. desire for success

2. dominance of Christian values

3. dominance over nature

Dominance of science and technology

13. This cathedral (Peter and Paul) was erected in 1712–1733 on the site of a wooden church of the same name... The name of the architect of the cathedral described and shown in the photo is associated with the __________ direction in Russian architecture of the 18th century.

Baroque

2. Renaissance

3. classic

4. Romanesque

18. The construction of this cathedral began between 1017 and 1019... In honor of the victory over the Pechenegs, which led to their complete defeat, in the 11th century. the cathedral was built...

1. St. Sophia in Chernigov

2. St. Elijah in Kyiv

St. Sophia in Kyiv

4. Uspensky in Vladimir

19.M. Vrubel... The works of M. Vrubel are characterized by...

1. following nature

Create your own fantasy world

3. striving for illustrative accuracy

4. worship of color

Fauvism

2. surrealism

3. Dadaism

25.From P. Sorokin’s work “The Crisis of Our Time”... P. Sorokin saw the essence of the crisis of sensual culture in...

1. confrontation between democracy and totalitarianism

2. the fight between communism and fascism

Changing the value system

4. great economic depression

29.From “Domostroy”... The author of “Domostroy” applied the ideology of the feudal monarchy to...

1. public service

Private life

3. church life

4. social life

33. In the ancient tradition, man is a microcosm... The specificity of ancient democracy is that it is based not on the primary protection of the interests of the individual, individualism, but on the protection of the interests...

1. oligarchies

2. human freedoms

3. aristocracy

Policy

37.From an article by L. Febvre... Appeal to the ancient heritage contributed to the formation of Italian...

1. cosmopolitanism

Humanism

3. mercantilism

4. paternalism

40.This abbey (Saint-Denis) occupied a special place... The creator of the Gothic style and the most influential abbot of the temple described and presented in the text was...

1. Guibert of Nozhansky

2. Trouble Venerable

Abbot Suzher (Sugeri)

4. Bernard of Clairvaux

42.The architectural ensemble of this church consists of nine pillar-shaped churches of varying heights. The temple described and shown in the photograph was built in memory of ...

1. victory over the Poles

2. liberation from the Mongol-Tatar yoke

Capture of Kazan

4. accession of the Romanov dynasty

44. The first seven theses assert that the repentance to which Jesus Christ calls is not accomplished in an act of sacrament, but lasts throughout the life of a Christian... The author of the 95 theses that laid the foundation for the Reformation is...

Martin Luther

2. John Calvin

3. Albrecht Durer

4. Johann Fischart

48.P. S. Gurevich: “In the era... the sublimity of the spirit took root in the area of ​​the economy itself. Any work associated with the transformation of life was considered poetic... A fundamental contribution to the formation of Protestant ethics was made by...

Martin Luther

2. Francois Vignon

3. John Calvin

4. Erasmus of Rotterdam

49.P. S. Gurevich: “In the era... the sublimity of the spirit took root in the area of ​​the economy itself. Any work associated with the transformation of life was considered poetic... Recognition of the dignity of labor is characteristic of the culture of the era...

1. Middle Ages

2. antiquity

Reformation

4. Revival

51.Theodore Gericault. "Officer of the mounted rangers of the imperial guard, going into the attack." 1812 French artist Theodore Gericault is the founder of _____ in painting.

1. impressionism

2. classicism

Romanticism

4. realism

53.Aphorisms of Voltaire:

“...Man is born to live in the throes of anxiety...”

“If God did not exist, he would have to be invented.”

“If people argue for a long time, this proves that what they are arguing about is not clear to themselves.”

One of Voltaire's highest achievements is his...

Historical works

2. paintings

4. scientific views

54.Aphorisms of Voltaire... Voltaire criticized absolutism, glorified reason, fought for...

1. human rights

2. market economy

Tolerance

56. From a letter to the boyar F. P. Morozova and Princess E. P. Urusova ... The author of the quoted letter addressed to the boyar F. P. Morozova and Princess E. P. Urusova was ...

1. Archpriest Filaret

2. Patriarch Nikon

Archpriest Avvakum

4. boyar Rtishchev

59.This cathedral, built in 1158–60. (rebuilt in 1185–89) differs from both Kyiv and early monuments of North-Eastern Rus'... The cathedral described and shown in the photo was founded...

1. Yuri Dolgoruky

2. Daniil Zatochnik

3. Vsevolod the Big Nest

Andrey Bogolyubsky

60.This cathedral, built in 1158–60. (rebuilt in 1185–89) differs from both Kyiv and early monuments of North-Eastern Rus'... The Assumption Cathedral described and shown in the picture is...

1. the main cathedral of North-Eastern Rus'

2. the first stone temple in Rus'

3. the main cathedral of the Novgorod Republic

a model for the construction of Russian churches

62.Ancient space is active, moving, heterogeneous, but does not yet have a rigid grid of dominant coordinates, equally in many directions, despite its heterogeneity in many areas and intervals, the dynamically changing stresses of its individual sections... A characteristic feature of the ancient temple is ...

And peasants. Characteristic is the use of methods of non-economic coercion, the combination of supreme power with land ownership. From the point of view of Marxist theory, feudalism is a socio-economic formation that replaces the slaveholding and precedes the capitalist one.

See also

Notes

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See what “Feudal Monarchy” is in other dictionaries:

Feudal monarchy is a form of government in which agricultural production predominates in the economy, subsistence farming dominates, and there are two main social groups: feudal lords and peasants. The use of methods is typical... ... Wikipedia

The period of weakening of central power in feudal states due to decentralization varying in duration and effect, due to the strengthening of large feudal lords in the conditions of seigneurial organization of labor and military service. New... ... Wikipedia

Peter I the Great, 1st All-Russian Emperor Forms of government, according to ... Wikipedia

Medieval France France during the Middle Ages. This period in French history begins in 476. The end of this period in Russian historiography is usually dated to 1640 (the beginning of the English bourgeois revolution), which in France is almost ... ... Wikipedia

Feudal fragmentation is a period of weakening of central power in feudal states due to decentralization varying in duration and effect, caused by the strengthening of large feudal lords in the conditions of a seigneurial system of organization... ... Wikipedia

MONARCHY- (from the Greek monarchos = monos - one archos - ruler) - a form of government in which state power belongs to one person holding the position of monarch (for example, king, king, shah, emir, kaiser) in the order of succession to the throne. Distinguish... ... encyclopedic Dictionary in psychology and pedagogy

Feudal reaction and counter-reformation in Europe- Prerequisites for the Counter-Reformation Despite the fact that feudalism in Europe in the 16th century. powerful blows were dealt, the forces of feudal reaction were still very significant and feudal system has outlived its usefulness. Therefore, after the first battles suffered from the bourgeois... The World History. Encyclopedia

- (English Anglo Norman Monarchy) or the early Norman period is a period in the history of England that began after Norman conquest in 1066. Usually the Anglo-Norman period is limited to the reign of the kings of the Norman dynasty... ... Wikipedia

Forms of government, political regimes and systems Anarchy Aristocracy Bureaucracy Gerontocracy Demarchy Democracy Imitation democracy Liberal democracy Introducing... Wikipedia

Forms of government, political regimes and systems Anarchy Aristocracy Bureaucracy Gerontocracy Demarchy Democracy Imitation democracy Liberal democracy ... Wikipedia

Books

• Feudal monarchy in France and England in the 10th-13th centuries, C. Petit-Dutailly. The book of the major French historian Sh.-E. Petit-Dutailly (1868-1947) is dedicated to the development of royal power in two medieval states, France and England, in the era when Western...
• Feudal monarchy in France and England in the 10th-13th centuries. , Petit-Dutailly Charles. The author reveals the features and differences of both monarchies and at the same time shows the similarities and borrowings in the field of legislation and administration 'from one bank of the English Channel to the other'. But…

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• Number of slides: 20

Description of the presentation Presentation moskva tretiy rim on slides

Along with the decline of Kievan Rus, the first civilizational period in the development of Russian culture ended, and from the middle of the 13th century. in its history, the process of formation and development of the Great Russian people and its spiritual characteristics began. This was the period of formation of a centralized state, its internal consolidation and strengthening of international positions. As a result of the complex and contradictory interaction of ethnic, historical, political and cultural factors, a new ethnocultural complex emerged, the center of which was North-Eastern Rus' and Moscow. A new ethnocultural community naturally emerged - the Great Russians, that is, a new nationality with specific features of spirituality and mentality. After the Mongol invasion, the policy of the ruling circles of Rus' was aimed at preserving Russian Orthodox identity in the face of external threats and cultural expansions. This did not lead to complete isolation of the country; it continued to be influenced by both the East and the West, while maintaining spiritual ties with Orthodox peoples. In such conditions, the formation of the Russian cultural archetype itself took place, which was called Muscovite Rus'.

Rome Constantinople Moscow. At the turn of the XV - XVI centuries. In Russia, the political theory “Moscow is the third Rome” appears, which substantiates the world-historical significance of the capital of the Russian state of Moscow as a political and church center.

It was set out in the letters of Philotheus of Pskov. The essence of the theory is that after the fall of Rome and Constantinople, the true faith was preserved only in the Moscow state, therefore from now on until the “end of the world” Moscow is the third Rome. According to this theory, Rus' is the historical heir and successor of the historical mission of the first and second Rome, and the Russian people were chosen by God. Philotheus’ theory “Moscow is the third Rome” determined the spiritual and historical destiny of Russia in the context of the entire world history. These ideas of Philotheus provide an accessible explanation for the rise of Moscow, and also predict a messianic role for it in the future.

It should be noted that Philotheus’ ideas combined elements of the so-called “Continuing Rome” theory, which is very widespread in Christian countries, according to which the history of the Roman Empire will continue forever. The desire to declare and emphasize one’s identity with the Roman Empire can be traced in socio-political thought different countries eastern and Western Europe. Philotheus’ theory “Moscow is the third Rome” carries two main ideas: 1) missionary (the author calls on the Moscow sovereign to convert all pagan peoples in his kingdom to Christianity) 2) church (the prince must take over the management of church affairs).

Thus, the theory “Moscow is the third Rome” expresses the great-power idea of ​​the Russian people, as well as the idea of ​​the Russian people being chosen by God. The ideology of “Moscow is the third Rome” had a significant impact on the subsequent development of state forms of autocracy in Russia.

Themes of journalistic messages reflecting social development, questions arose about the power of the Tsar and in general about the structure of the Russian state. The leading direction of socio-political thought of the XIV-XV centuries. , reflected in chronicles and other literary works, was the idea of ​​all-Russian unity and strong princely power in alliance with the church, expressed in religious form. It was a feudal ideology in its class and political content, expressing the progressive movement at that time towards the creation of a unified feudal monarchy. WITH greatest strength this ideology developed in the works of Moscow socio-political thought.

In the late 40s - early 50s of the 16th century. writes his petitions to Ivan IV I. S. Peresvetov (possibly a fictitious person). To present his views, Peresvetov uses a unique literary device. He depicts a non-existent ideal monarch - Makhmet-Saltan of Turkey, who, having concentrated all power in his hands, managed to establish fair relations and a strong rule of law in his state.

We see a fierce debate on these same issues in the famous correspondence (1564 -1577) of Ivan the Terrible with Prince Andrei Kurbsky, one of his supporters in the 50s. Having fled abroad with the beginning of the oprichnina, Kurbsky sent a message to the tsar, accusing him of tyranny and cruelty. Grozny replied. The entire correspondence consists of two messages from the tsar and three princes, who also wrote the pamphlet “The History of the Grand Duke of Moscow.” Thus, Kurbsky advocated a monarchy, but a limited one. Tsar Ivan considered only a monarchy with unlimited power to be a true monarchy. This is what he proved - in this case, with a pen in his hands. The arguments are primarily facts from previous history, according to which “autocracy” exists in the Russian land “by God’s permission.”

The fight against the church found its expression in such a journalistic work as “The Conversation of the Valaam Elders” (mid-16th century). The author, a supporter of strong church authority, opposes attempts by the clergy to interfere in public administration and against monasteries seizing black peasant lands. His main demand was the complete destruction of monastic land ownership.

Most of the grandiose handwritten historical and literary works are associated with the activities of Metropolitan Macarius. By 1554, he and his collaborators created the “Great Four Menaions” - a 12-volume collection of all the books “read” in Rus': lives and teachings, Byzantine laws and monuments of church law, stories and legends. The works were distributed according to the days on which they were recommended to be read

Another major work was “The Powerful Book of the Royal Genealogy.” A degree book arranges the narrative according to “degrees.” Each degree corresponds to the reign of a prince (from Vladimir to Ivan IV) and a metropolitan. This emphasized the idea of ​​unity of royal and church power.

In the middle of the 16th century. chroniclers prepared a new chronicle code, called the Nikon Chronicle (since one of the lists belonged to Patriarch Nikon in the 17th century). The Nikon Chronicle absorbed all previous chronicle material from the beginning of Rus' to the end of the 50s of the 16th century. A remarkable feature of this collection is the presence in it of some data relating mainly to ancient period Russian history, which are not found in other chronicles. The authors of the Nikon Chronicle also made an attempt not to simply present the material, but to explain certain events.

In the 70s of the 16th century. The compilation of an illustrated world history, the Facial Chronicle, was completed. It consisted of 12 volumes, of which 10 have reached us. facial vault world history is presented as a succession of great kingdoms - Hebrew, Babylonian, Persian, Alexander the Great, Roman, Byzantine. The formation of the Russian state seems to be a logical result of this process.

Chronicles of the 16th century. are also represented by local works. For example, “The Chronicler of the Beginning of the Kingdom” describes the first years of the reign of Ivan the Terrible. In the 60s, the “History of the Kazan Kingdom” was compiled, which proved the historical justice of the conquest of the Kazan Khanate. By the end of the 16th century. One of the editions of “The Tale of the Beginning of Moscow” also applies.

To literature everyday genre This includes such an original work as Domostroy, the author of which was probably Archpriest Sylvester. “Domostroy” means “housekeeping,” so you can find a variety of advice and instructions in it: how to raise children and treat your wife, store supplies and dry laundry, when to buy goods at the market and how to receive guests. The instructions, at the same time, are sanctified by the authority of God and the Holy Scriptures.

Thus, the period of the XIII-XVII centuries is the time of the formation of the Great Russian ethnic group and its main stereotypes in the consciousness, the self-determination of the Russian Church, and its finding its place on the cultural map of the world. The desire for unity, for the unification of the people, which arose during the difficult interfaith situation in Rus', is a central element of Russian identity, which was complemented by disobedience to those who wanted to encroach on the independence of the people; devotion to the tsar (the father of the family for the people according to “Domostroy”); loyalty to the highest moral ideals. All these elements of self-awareness allowed the people to self-identify as Russian, and self-awareness determined the further course of Russian history.

DOMOSTROY

1. Patriarchal, harsh and inert family life (after the name of the old Russian code of everyday rules).

2. A good owner, an organizer of order in his home.

USEFUL BOOK

“Domostroy” amazes us today with the almost incredible spirituality of even the smallest everyday details. “Domostroy” is not just a collection of advice; a grandiose picture of an ideally churched family and economic life unfolds before the reader. Orderliness becomes almost ritualistic, a person’s daily activity rises to the heights of church action, obedience reaches monastic strictness, love for the king and the fatherland, home and family acquires the features of real religious service.

"Domostroy" was created in the first half of the reign. The authorship of the final text is associated with the name of the associate and mentor of Ivan the Terrible, Priest Sylvester of the Annunciation.

“Domostroy” consists of three parts: about the attitude of Russian people to the Church and royal power; about intra-family structure; about organizing and running a household.

“Fear the king and serve him with faith, and always pray to God for him,” Domostroy teaches. “If you serve the earthly king with righteousness and are afraid of him, then you will learn to fear the heavenly King...” The duty of serving God is at the same time the duty of serving the Tsar, who personifies Orthodox statehood: “The Tsar... do not strive to serve with lies and slander and deceit... do not desire earthly glory in anything... do not repay evil for evil, nor slander for slander... do not condemn those who sin, but remember your sins and take great care of them..."

Domostroy has everything. There are touching instructions “how to love and care for the children of their father and mother and obey them and give them peace in everything.” There are arguments that “if God gives someone a good wife, his dearest is a valuable stone.” There are practical tips: “what kind of dress to wear and arrange for a wife,” “what kind of vegetable garden to plant,” “what type of food to serve at the table all year round” (details about what is for a meat-eater, and what is for what Lent). There are instructions on the rules of home prayer for the whole family - “how a husband, wife and household members should pray to God in their home.” And all this - with that simplicity, thoroughness and quiet, peaceful leisurelyness that unmistakably testifies to a concentrated prayer life and unshakable faith.

WOMAN'S LOOK

Domostroy - a set of rules of conduct for a city dweller that he had to follow in Everyday life, a monument to secular writing from the 16th century. The authorship and compilation work are attributed to the archpriest of the Annunciation Monastery in Moscow, confessor of Ivan the Terrible, Sylvester. When compiling the code, Russian (“Izmaragd”, “Chrysostom”, “Teaching and Punishment of the Spiritual Fathers”) and Western (Czech “Book of Christian Doctrine”, French “Parisian Master”, Polish “Life of a Respectable Man”, etc.) “teaching books” were used collections." For gender history, sections of Domostroy XXIX, XXXIV, XXXVI are of particular importance, relating to the upbringing of children (including teaching girls to do needlework and boys to do “men’s” housework) and relationships with his wife, the “empress of the House,” as the author of Domostroy calls the mistress. Domostroy taught women “how to please God and their husband,” how to maintain the honor of the clan and family, take care of the family hearth, and run the household. Judging by Domostroy, they were real housekeepers who supervised the procurement of food, cooking, organizing the work of all family members and servants (cleaning, providing water and firewood, spinning, weaving, tailoring, etc.). All members of the household, except the owner, were supposed to help the “empress of the House”, completely submitting to her. In relations with household members, Domostroy recommended that the owner be a “thunderstorm” for his wife and children and severely punish them for their offenses, up to “crushing their ribs,” or “whipping them with a whip depending on their guilt.” The cruelty of relations with his wife and children, prescribed by Domostroy, did not go beyond the morality of the late Middle Ages and differed little from similar edifications of Western European monuments of this type. However, Domostroy entered the history of Russian social thought precisely thanks to the odious descriptions of his wife’s punishments, since it was repeatedly quoted in this part by Russian commoners-publicists of the 1860s, and then by V.I. Lenin. This explains the unjust oblivion of this most valuable monument until the last quarter of the 20th century. Currently, the expression “Domostroevsky morals” has retained a clearly defined negative connotation.

WOMAN'S LOOK-2

...The argument of foreign researchers in favor of the theory of “terem seclusion” is that during the period of strengthening the grand ducal and then tsarist power and increasing the power of the boyar-princely aristocracy, women remained aloof from these processes and did not receive the right to independently rule, self-realize and even travel without a male escort.

This conclusion was made on the basis of a number of works of the 16th century. - “Domostroya” by the Blagoveshchensk archpriest Sylvester and notes from foreigners about Russia. But can these monuments be considered reliable historical sources? Sylvester expressed his idea of ​​the place of women in society and the family; foreigners, who had almost no contact with Russian people, could have only the most superficial idea of ​​the situation of local women. For example, seeing that a noble person was traveling on business surrounded by an honorary retinue, they could conclude that she did not have the right to travel alone. Foreigners could also be biased in their assessment of the presence of male and female halves in Russian homes. This was not due to the isolation of women, but to the division of responsibilities in the family. The woman raised small children, provided all household members, including servants, with clothes, bed linen and took care of their cleanliness. All women had these responsibilities, regardless of their social status. But the noble and rich hired servants, needlewomen, porto-washers, nurses, mothers and nannies for children, while the poor commoners did everything themselves. But husbands never interfered in these women’s affairs, giving spouses freedom of action.

AUTHORSHIP

Sylvester (beginning of the 16th century - until 1568), a native of the Novgorod prosperous commercial and industrial environment, was close to the Novgorod Archbishop Macarius, after whose election as metropolitan he moved to Moscow and from 1545 became the archpriest of the court Annunciation Cathedral in the Kremlin. He participated in the preparation and implementation of state and cultural reforms of that time, including the compilation and editing of such important monuments as the Code of Laws of 1550 and the Chet'i-Minei. In his political views, Sylvester is close to non-covetous people; he opposed the enrichment of the church, defended strong state power - autocracy; this became a political platform for rapprochement with representatives of the rising nobility (represented by other adherents of the new course, such as Alexei Adashev). Ivan IV’s “offensiveness” to Sylvester began after the boyar “rebellion” of 1553, in which Sylvester took an evasive position; since he was associated with Vladimir Staritsky, the main antagonist of Ivan IV, he had to “voluntarily” take monastic vows at the Kirillo-Belozersky Monastery (under the name of Spiridon). Sylvester suffered final disgrace in the spring of 1560, after the death of Queen Anastasia, who favored him. Further circumstances of Sylvester’s personal life are little known and controversial; even the time and place of his death is unknown. A major political figure and writer, last years During his life he was engaged only in copying books, some of which have survived.

“Domostroy” “Silvestrovsky edition” is the main work of the writer; he edited and partly supplemented the Novgorod collection of similar content that was circulating in the lists.

FROM THREE PARTS OF HOUSE CONSTRUCTION

6. How to visit in monasteries and in hospitals and in dungeons and any sorrowful person (“give drink, feed, warm”)

In monasteries, and in hospitals and in the desert and in dungeons, you visit those imprisoned and give alms and all kinds of necessary strength and greatly demand, and you see their misfortune and sorrow and every need as much as possible, help them and everyone who is sorrowful and poor and in need and do not despise poverty, bring Give your house something to drink, warm your clothes with all your love and a pure conscience, create the mercy of God and receive freedom, and make an offering to the churches of God in memory of your departed parents and feed them in the house, give alms to the poor, and you yourself will be remembered by God.

(In the monastery, and in the hospital, and in seclusion, and in prison, visit prisoners and give alms that they ask, according to the strength of your ability, and look into their misfortune and sorrow, and into their needs, and, as far as possible, help them, and do not despise the needy or the beggar, bring everyone into your home, give them something to drink, feed, warm, and greet with love and a clear conscience: and with this you will earn the mercy of God and receive forgiveness of sins; and also your parents Remember the deceased with an offering to the Church of God, and arrange funeral services at home, and give alms to the poor, then you yourself will be remembered by God).

20. Praise for wives (“if God grants a good wife”)

If God grants a wife to a good darling, there are valuable stones, such a one will not lose self-interest from goodness, she does all the goodness to her husband, having found the wave and flax, create usefully with her hands, as if I would buy a ship, working from afar, she collects wealth in herself and rises from the night and gives a tidy house and the work of the slaves, from the fruit he plants his hand, he labors a lot, having girded his loins tightly, he strengthens his arm for the work and teaches his children, likewise the servant, and her lamp does not go out all night, stretches out his hand to the useful, and strengthens his lactation to the lost , mercy extends to the poor, but gives fruit to the poor, does not care about the house; her husband does not care about the house; her husband makes many kinds of attire, adorned, for her husband and for herself and for her child, and for her household, but the husband will always be in the company of a nobleman and sit down with a well-known nobleman, he will be honest quickly, and understand the conversation prudently because no one will be married without labor to do good; for the sake of a good wife, blessed is the husband and the number of his days; the wife of good cheers her husband and fulfills his life with peace; the wife of goodness may share in the goodness of those who fear the Lord; for the wife is more honest with her husband, keeping the first commandment of God, she will be blessed, and the second is praised by man, a wife who is kind, and passionate and silent, a man who has found his crown is a husband who wears his good wife out of his home, blessed are such wives as husbands and fulfill their years in the blessing of the world , about a good wife, praise and honor to her husband.

(If God gives a good wife, a better one is better than a precious stone; such a one will not deprive her of good for her selfishness, she will always good life suits her husband. Having collected wool and flax, do what needs to be done with your own hands, be like a trading ship: it absorbs wealth from afar and emerges from the night; and she will give food to the house and work to the maidservants, and from the fruits of her hands she will greatly increase her wealth; having girded her loins tightly, she sets her hands to work and teaches her children, like her servants, and her lamp does not go out all night: she stretches out her hands to the spinning wheel, and her fingers take hold of the spindle, she turns mercy on the poor and gives the fruits of her labor to the poor, - Her husband does not worry about the house; He will make all kinds of embroidered clothes for his husband, and for himself, and for his children, and for his household. And therefore her husband will always gather with the nobles and sit down, honored by all his friends, and, speaking wisely, knows how to do good, for no one is crowned without difficulty. If a husband is blessed with a good wife, the number of days of his life will double, a good wife will delight her husband and fill his years with peace; a good wife will be a good reward for those who fear God, for a wife makes her husband more virtuous: firstly, having fulfilled God’s commandment, she will be blessed by God, and secondly, she will be glorified by people. A kind, hardworking, and silent wife is a crown to her husband, if the husband has found his good wife, she only takes good things out of his house; blessed is the husband of such a wife, and they will live their years in good peace; for a good wife, praise and honor to the husband).

54. In the cellar and on the glacier, take care of everything (“and saffron milk caps, and caviar, and fruit juice”)

And in the cellar and on the glaciers and in the cellars there are breads and kolaches, cheeses, white eggs, and onions, garlic and all kinds of meat, fresh and corned beef and fresh and salted fish and unleavened honey, and boiled meat and fish jelly and all the food supplies, and cucumbers and cabbage, salted and fresh, and turnips, and all sorts of vegetables, and saffron milk caps, and caviar, and set roses, and fruit juice, and apple kvass, and lingonberry waters and Flaz wines, and flammable foods and all kinds of honey, and fresh and plain beer, and mash, and the key keeper would know how much was stored in the cellar, and on the glacier and the cellar, and everything would be counted and remarked, whether completely or not completely, and remarked, and recorded, and how much of what he would give to where by order of the sovereign and how much Why would everything be in the account? It would be something to say to the ruler, and an account of everything would be given, and everything would be clean and covered, and not musty and moldy, and sour, and the wines from Frya and the dry wine are overcooked, and all the best drinks keep it in a lined cellar behind a lock and go there yourself.

(And in the cellar, and on the glaciers, and in the pantries there are breads and rolls, cheeses and eggs, sour cream and onions, garlic and all kinds of meat, fresh and corned beef, and fresh and salted fish, and unleavened honey, and boiled food, meat and fish , jelly and all edible supplies, and cucumbers, and cabbage, salted and fresh, and turnips, and all sorts of vegetables, and saffron milk caps, and caviar, and ready-made brines, and fruit juice, and apple kvass, and lingonberry waters, and dry and strong wines , and all kinds of honey, and beer with honey and plain beer, and mash - the housekeeper is in charge of all that stock. And how much of what is stored in the pantry, and on the glacier, and in the cellar - all of it would be counted and re-marked, which is entirely, but what is not completely counted, and written down, and how much of what and where the housekeeper will give according to the master's order, and how much of what will be dispersed - and then everything would be in the account, there would be something to say to the master and an account of everything. everything is clean, and covered, and not suffocated, and not moldy, and not sour. And keep dry wines and honey infusions and other best drinks in a special cellar under lock and key and keep an eye on them yourself).