Army of the Roman Empire. Ancient Roman army

Ancient Roman warriors fought in cohesive and disciplined units. A group of 80 warriors was called a century. Several centuries were part of a cohort, and ten cohorts made up a legion.

A Roman legionnaire (foot soldier) wore an iron helmet on his head. In his left hand he held a shield made of wood and leather, in his right hand a throwing spear or sword, which was kept in a sheath on his belt. The Roman warrior's breastplate was made of metal plates. A peculiar ancient Roman tunic hung from the waist. The feet of the ancient Roman legionnaire were wearing leather sandals, which were padded with nails.

The Romans were determined warriors, they conquered even well-defended cities. The Romans surrounded the city with a tight ring, and then, using ingenious technology, broke into it.

To approach the besieged city, Roman soldiers moved under a canopy of shields. This formation is called a “turtle”. It effectively protected attackers from arrows fired from the walls by the city's defenders. Also, to get closer to the walls, soldiers built a covered passage. Along it, without endangering their lives, they could approach the wall.

When the Roman army attacked a walled city, the soldiers used special mobile wooden siege towers. The tower was sheathed with durable metal sheets. The warriors erected an inclined plane on an uneven piece of land, then rolled the siege tower to the wall. Then the ancient Roman soldiers climbed up the internal stairs of the siege tower. Afterwards, they lowered the drawbridge onto the wall and burst into the city.

At the same time as using the siege tower, the ancient Romans used a battering ram to break through the wall, and also dug under the wall to destroy it. The warriors operating the ram were inside it.

At long distances, the ancient Romans used catapults. Large catapults threw heavy stones at the walls. Smaller catapults fired metal arrows at the enemy. Skilled Roman archers, who were considered one of the best in the Middle East, fired from the same distance.

Having burst into the city, the ancient Romans set houses on fire with flaming arrows so that the entire city was engulfed in flames. All surviving townspeople were captured and sold into slavery. Material from the site

The Roman Empire had to be kept in subjection, and therefore military units had to move quickly to get to where they were needed. A network was built good roads, which could be used to reach any corner of the empire. Warriors walked along such roads more than 50 km a day.

Camps and forts

After a long forced march, the soldiers set up camp for the night. The temporary camp of the ancient Roman soldiers was surrounded by a fence and surrounded on the perimeter by a defensive rampart (earthen hill), in front of which a ditch was dug. The camp itself consisted of leather tents. The next morning the camp was cleared and the army continued on its way. On the borders of the empire, where the constant presence of garrisons was necessary, stone forts were built.

The Roman army in its era was considered the strongest on the planet. Few could compete with her in terms of military power at that time. Thanks to the strictest discipline and high-quality training of the military, this entire “military machine” of Ancient Rome was an order of magnitude ahead of many military garrisons of other developed states of that time. Read about the numbers, ranks, units and victories of the Roman army in the article.

Discipline is a priority

Units of the Roman army were always under the strictest discipline. And absolutely all soldiers, without exception, had to comply with generally accepted principles. For any violations of order in the troops of the famous Roman army, even corporal punishment was applied to the “obeying” soldiers. Often those who did not maintain order in the military camps were beaten with the rods of lictors.

And those actions that could have serious negative consequences for the Roman army were generally punishable by death. This action supposedly emphasized the fact that it was unacceptable for a soldier of the empire to behave inappropriately, lest the bad example be followed by all his other comrades.

Decimation was rightfully considered the harshest death penalty during the existence of the Roman army. Entire legions were subjected to it for displaying cowardice during military battles or for failure to carry out or completely ignore military orders. The essence of this “unpleasant procedure” was that every 10th warrior in the detachment that was guilty during the battle was selected by lot. And the rest of the squad beat these unfortunate soldiers with stones or sticks until they died.

The remaining soldiers of the powerful Roman army were also shamefully condemned for their cowardice shown on the battlefield. They were not allowed to pitch tents in the military camp, and instead of wheat, such soldiers were given barley as food.

Fustuary was applied to a greater extent to each individual for any serious offenses. This type of punishment was most often used in practice. It involved beating the offending soldier to death with stones and sticks.

Shameful punishments were also often used, the main purpose of which was to induce a feeling of shame in the guilty. They could be completely different in nature, but the main educational feature remained the same - so that the military man who committed a cowardly act would never resort to it again!

For example, weak-willed soldiers could be forced to dig unnecessary trenches, carry heavy stones, take off all their clothes to the waist and report to a military camp in such an unsightly state.

The structure of the army of Ancient Rome

The military division of the Roman army consisted of the following military representatives:

Legionnaires - they included both Roman soldiers and mercenaries from other states. This legion of the Roman army consisted of cavalry, infantry units, and also cavalry.
Allied cavalry and allied units - military personnel of other countries who were granted Italian citizenship.
Auxiliary troops - recruited local residents from the Italian provinces.

The Roman army consisted of many different units, but each of them was well organized and trained in an appropriate manner. At the forefront of the army of Ancient Rome was the security of the entire empire, on which all state power was based.

Ranks and ranks of the Roman military

The ranks of the Roman army contributed to the construction of a clear military hierarchy of the time. Each officer performed a specific function assigned to him. And this contributed greatly to maintaining military discipline within the legions of the Roman army.

The senior officers included the Legate of the legion, the Tribune of Laticlavius, the Tribune of Angusticlavius and the Prefect of the camp.

Legate of the legion - a certain person was appointed to this post directly by the emperor himself. Moreover, on average, a military man held this position for 3 or 4 years, but in some cases he could hold this position for a little longer than the specified period. In provincial areas, the legate of the legion could perform the function of governor assigned to him.

Tribune Laticlavius - the military was elected to this position by decisions of the emperor or the senate. In the legion, a military man holding this rank was considered the second most senior person.

The prefect of the camp was the third most important and influential position within the legion. Often, those veterans who previously held the rank of Centurions and over time received promotions became perfects.

Tribune Angusticlavius - these ranks were received by those soldiers of the Roman army who, until a certain time, were in charge of administrative posts. If necessary, this category of senior officers could easily command even an entire legion.

And the average officer corps of the army of Ancient Rome included such military ranks as Primipilus and Centurion.

Primipil was the assistant commander of the legion and he was taught an important mission - to organize the protection of the unit’s banner. And the main attribute and pride of the legions was the “Roman eagle”. Primipil’s duties also included giving certain sound signals indicating the beginning of the offensive.

Centurion is the basic officer rank in the entire structure of ancient Roman military formations. In the legions there were about 59 warriors with this rank, who lived together with ordinary soldiers in tents, and during battles they commanded them.

The army of ancient Rome had quite a lot of junior officers in its ranks. Their ranks included Option, Tesserary, Decurion, and Dean.

Option was Centurion's assistant and, at the first opportunity, could successfully replace him during hot battles with the enemy.

Tesserary was Option's deputy, and his responsibilities were assigned to the functions related to the organization of guards and the transmission of the necessary passwords to the sentries.

Decurion - led a small cavalry detachment consisting of 30 horsemen.

Dean - commanded a small combat unit, which included no more than 10 soldiers.

All ranks in the Roman army were awarded for any specific merits in the military field of activity. But this does not mean at all that the highest ranks obeyed purely experienced warriors. There have been quite a lot of situations when a young, but at the same time promising officer who perfectly understands his job was appointed to a high post.

Historical victories

It's time to talk about the most significant victories of Roman soldiers. History knows many cases when a well-organized military group of Ancient Rome literally crushed its enemy. The victories of the Roman army marked to a greater extent the assertion of the power of the entire empire in the world hierarchy.

One such incident occurred at the Battle of Warzella in 101 BC. The Roman troops were then led by Gaius Marius, who was opposed by detachments of the Cimbri, led by the leader Boyorig. It all ended with the true destruction of the opposing side and the Cimbri on the battlefield lost from 90 to 140 thousand of their brothers-in-arms. This does not count the 60 thousand of their soldiers taken prisoner. Thanks to this historical victory of the Roman army, Italy secured its territories from unpleasant enemy campaigns against them.

The Battle of Tigranakert, which took place in 69 BC, provided an opportunity for Italian forces, outnumbered by the Armenian military camp, to defeat their opponents. After this armed conflict, the state of Tigran II completely collapsed.

The Battle of Roxter, which took place in 61 AD in what is now England, ended in a landslide victory for the Roman legions. After those bloody events, the power of Ancient Rome was quite firmly entrenched over all of Britain.

Severe tests of strength during the uprising of Spartacus

The real army of the Roman Empire was used to suppress a slave uprising of a grandiose scale, which was organized by the fugitive gladiator Spartacus. In fact, the actions of the organizers of such a protest were dictated by the desire to fight for their own freedom to the very end.

At the same time, the revenge of the slaves for the Roman military leaders was prepared with particular harshness - they were not spared one bit. Perhaps this was retaliation for the humiliating actions that were applied to gladiators in Ancient Rome. They were forced by the high ranks of Rome to fight on the sand until they died. And all this happened as a kind of fun, and living people died in the arena and no one took this into account at all.

The war of slaves against their Italian masters began quite suddenly. In 73 BC, the escape of gladiators from the school of Capue was organized. Then about 70 slaves, well trained in military craft, escaped. The shelter of this detachment was a fortified position at the foot of the Vesuvius volcano. It was here that the first battle of slaves took place against a detachment of Roman soldiers who were pursuing them. The Roman attack was successfully repulsed, after which a variety of fairly high-quality weapons appeared in the gladiators' weapons arsenal.

Over time, an increasing number of freed slaves, as well as those civilian citizens of Italy who were dissatisfied with the then government, joined the Spartacus uprising. Thanks to the art of Spartacus to organize his units well (even Roman officers recognized this fact), a solid army was formed from a small detachment of gladiators. And it defeated the Roman legions in many battles. This made the entire empire of Ancient Rome feel a certain fear for its continued existence.

Only unfavorable circumstances for Spartacus did not allow his army to cross Sicily, replenish his own troops with new slaves and avoid death. Sea pirates, having received conditional payment from the gladiators for the provision of services regarding crossing the sea, they brazenly deceived them and did not fulfill their own promises. Almost driven into a corner (Crassus and his legions were on the heels of Spartacus), Spartacus decided on the last and decisive battle. During this battle, the famous gladiator died, and the scattered ranks of slaves were successfully exterminated by Roman troops.

Roman army tactics

The army always defended the Roman world from enemy attacks. Therefore, the empire took very seriously the issues of its equipment, as well as the development of tactics in battles.

First of all, Roman commanders always thought through places for future battles. This was done so that the strategic position of the Roman legions was in a more advantageous situation compared to the location of the enemy. The most best place a hill around which free space was clearly visible was considered. And attacks were often carried out precisely from the side from which the bright sun was shining. This blinded the enemy forces and created an uncomfortable situation for him.

The battle plan was thought out in advance, since the transmission of orders was difficult. The commanders tried to build and train their soldiers in such a way that they would be well versed in all the intricacies of his strategic military idea and would carry out all actions on the battlefield automatically.

The military unit in the army of the Roman Empire was always well prepared for the upcoming battles. Each soldier individually knew his job well and was mentally prepared for certain difficulties. Many tactical developments were learned in exercises that the Roman commanders did not neglect. This bore certain fruits during battles, so the Roman military often achieved certain successes thanks to mutual understanding and good physical and tactical training.

History knows one remarkable fact: sometimes Roman military commanders before battles performed ritual fortune-telling, which could predict how successful a particular company might be.

Uniforms and equipment of the Roman military

What was the uniform and equipment of the soldiers like? The military unit in the Roman army was quite well technically equipped and had good uniforms. In battle, legionnaires used the sword very successfully, inflicting mostly piercing wounds on the enemy.

A pilum was very often used - a dart more than two meters long, at the end of which an iron rod with a double-spike or pyramidal tip was installed. For a short distance, the pilum was an ideal weapon, causing confusion in enemy formations. In some situations, thanks to this weapon, the Roman military pierced the enemy’s shield and inflicted mortal wounds on him.

The legionnaire's shield had a curved oval shape. In a hot battle, he largely helped to avoid injuries. The width of the Roman warrior's shield was 63.5 centimeters and the length was 128 centimeters. Moreover, this item was covered with calf leather and felt. His weight was 10 kilograms.

The military one was quite short, but very sharp. This type of weapon was called the gladius. During the reign of Emperor Augustus in Ancient Rome, an improved sword was invented. It was he who supplanted the old modifications of these weapons and, in fact, immediately gained particular popularity in military affairs. The width of its blade was 8 centimeters, and its length was 40-56 centimeters. This weapon, which caused panic among enemy troops, weighed relatively little - from 1.2 to 1.6 kilograms. In order for the sword to be presentable appearance, its scabbard was trimmed with tin or silver, and then carefully decorated with various unusual compositions.

In addition to the sword, a dagger could also be effective in battle. Externally, its structure was very similar to a sword, but its blade was shorter (20-30 centimeters).

The armor of Roman soldiers was very heavy, but not all military units used it. A number of units, whose responsibilities included organizing a firefight with the enemy, as well as reinforcements for the active cavalry, were lightly equipped and therefore did not wear heavy armor. The weight of legionnaires' chain mail could vary from 9 to 15 kilograms. But if the chain mail was additionally equipped with shoulder pads, it could weigh about 16 kilograms. The material from which it was most often made is iron. Bronze armor, although encountered in practice, was much less common.

Number

The size of the Roman army in many cases showed its military power. But her training and technical equipment also played a big role. For example, Emperor Augustus in 14 AD took a radical step and reduced the number of armed forces to 28,000 people. However, at its height, the total strength of the Roman fighting legions was on the order of 100,000, but in some cases the number of military personnel could be increased to 300,000 if this step was dictated by necessity.

In the era of Honorius, the armed Roman garrisons were much more numerous. At that time, about 1,000,000 soldiers defended the empire, but the reform of Constantine and Diolectian significantly narrowed the scope of the “Roman military machine” and left only 600,000 soldiers in service. At the same time, about 200,000 people were included in the mobile group, and the remaining 400,000 were part of the legions.

In terms of ethnicity, the composition of the Roman army also underwent fundamental changes over time. If in the 1st century AD the Roman military ranks were dominated to a greater extent by local residents, then by the end of the 1st century - the beginning of the 2nd century AD quite a lot of Italics could be found there. And at the end of the 2nd century AD, the Roman army was like that only on paper, since people from many countries of the world served in it. To a greater extent, it began to be dominated by military mercenaries who served for material rewards.

In the legion - the main Roman unit - about 4,500 soldiers served. At the same time, there was a detachment of horsemen, of whom there were approximately 300 people. Thanks to the correct tactical division of the legion, this military unit could successfully maneuver and inflict significant damage on the enemy. In any case, the army knows many cases of successful operations that culminated in a crushing victory by the military forces of the empire.

The essence of reform changes

The main reform of the Roman army was introduced in 107 BC. It was during this period that consul Gaius Marius issued a historic law that significantly changed the rules for recruiting legionnaires for military service. Among the main innovations of this document, the following main points can be highlighted:

The division of legions into maniples (small detachments) was somewhat modified. Now the legion could also be divided into cohorts, which included more people than was assumed in the maniples. At the same time, the cohorts were able to successfully carry out serious combat missions.
The structure of the Roman army was now formed according to new principles. Low-income citizens could now become soldiers. Until this moment, they did not have such a prospect. People from poor families were supplied with weapons at state expense, and they were also provided with the necessary military training.
All soldiers began to receive regular, substantial cash rewards for their service.

Thanks to the reform ideas that Gaius Marius successfully put into practice, the Roman army not only became more organized and well trained, but the military had a considerable incentive to improve their professional skills and move up the “career ladder”, achieving new titles and ranks. The soldiers were generously rewarded with land plots, so this agrarian issue was one of the levers for improving the combat training of the then army.

In addition, the professional army began to play a significant role in the political life of the empire. In fact, it gradually turned into a major political force that simply could not be ignored within the state.

The main criterion that showed the consistency of the reform of the armed forces of Ancient Rome was the victory of Marius over the tribes of the Teutons and Cimbri. This historical battle dates back to 102 BC.

The army during the late period of the Roman Empire

The army of the late Roman Empire was formed during the “crisis of the 3rd century” - this is how historians characterized this period. During this time of troubles for the Romans, many territories of the empire are separated from it, as a result of which the threat of attack from neighboring countries is increasingly growing. Such separatist sentiments were fueled by the recruitment of legionnaires into the armed forces of many residents from provincial villages.

The Roman army underwent great trials during the Alamanni raids on Italian territory. It was then that entire numerous territories were devastated, which led to the usurpation of local power.

Emperor Gallienus, who tried with all his might to counteract the crisis within the state, is carrying out new transformations in the Roman army. In 255 and 259 AD, he managed to assemble a large cavalry group. However, the main marching army of this period was 50,000 people. Milan became an excellent place from where to counteract numerous enemy raids.

During the crisis period that fell in the 3rd century AD, there was constant dissatisfaction among the military of Ancient Rome with the fact that they were not paid for their service. The situation was aggravated by the depreciation of money. Many of the soldiers' previous monetary savings were melting away before our eyes.

And here the moment had come to carry out the final reform in the structure of the Roman army, initiated by Diocletian and Aurelian. This historical period of the late existence of the Roman Empire was nicknamed "Dominate". It was due to the fact that the process of separation into military and civil administration began to be actively introduced in the state. As a result, 100 provinces appeared, in each of which duxes and comites were in charge of military order. At the same time, recruitment into the legions of Roman troops is carried out forcibly; there is a mandatory conscription into the army.

Ancient Rome is a state that conquered the peoples of Europe, Africa, Asia, and Britain. Roman soldiers were famous throughout the world for their iron discipline (but it was not always iron) and brilliant victories. The Roman commanders went from victory to victory (there were also severe defeats), until all the peoples of the Mediterranean found themselves under the weight of the soldier’s boot.

Roman army in different time had different numbers, number of legions, different formations. With the improvement of military art, weapons, tactics and strategy changed.
In Rome there was universal conscription. Young men began to serve in the army from the age of 17 and up to 45 in field units, after 45 to 60 they served in fortresses. Persons who participated in 20 campaigns in the infantry and 10 in the cavalry were exempt from service. Service life also changed over time.
At one time, due to the fact that everyone wanted to serve in the light infantry (weapons were cheap and purchased at their own expense), the citizens of Rome were divided into categories. This was done under Servius Tullius. The 1st category included people who owned property valued at no less than 100,000 copper asses, the 2nd - at least 75,000 asses, the 3rd - 50,000 asses, the 4th - 25,000 asses, the 5th -mu - 11,500 asses. All poor people were included in the 6th category - proletarians, whose wealth was only their offspring (proles). Each property category fielded a certain number of military units - centuries (hundreds): 1st category - 80 centuries of heavy infantry, which were the main fighting force, and 18 centuries of horsemen; only 98 centuries; 2nd - 22; 3rd - 20; 4th - 22; 5th - 30 lightly armed centuries and 6th category - 1 century, a total of 193 centuries. Lightly armed warriors were used as baggage servants. Thanks to the division into ranks, there was no shortage of heavily armed, lightly armed infantry and horsemen. Proletarians and slaves did not serve because they were not trusted.
Over time, the state took upon itself not only the maintenance of the warrior, but also withheld from his salary for food, weapons and equipment.
After a severe defeat at Cannes and in a number of other places, after the Punic Wars, the army was reorganized. Salaries were sharply increased and proletarians were allowed to serve in the army.
Continuous wars required many soldiers, changes in weapons, construction, and training. The army became mercenary. Such an army could be led anywhere and against anyone. This is what happened when Lucius Cornellius Sulla came to power (1st century BC).

Organization of the Roman army

After the victorious wars of the IV-III centuries. BC. All the peoples of Italy came under the rule of Rome. To keep them in obedience, the Romans gave some peoples more rights, others less, sowing mutual distrust and hatred between them. It was the Romans who formulated the law of “divide and conquer.”
And for this, numerous troops were needed. Thus, the Roman army consisted of:
a) legions in which the Romans themselves served, consisting of heavy and light infantry and cavalry assigned to them;
b) Italian allies and allied cavalry (after granting citizenship rights to the Italians who joined the legion);
c) auxiliary troops recruited from the inhabitants of the provinces.
The main tactical unit was the legion. At the time of Servius Tullius, the legion numbered 4,200 men and 900 horsemen, not counting 1,200 lightly armed soldiers who were not part of the legion's combat ranks.
Consul Marcus Claudius changed the structure of the legion and weapons. This happened in the 4th century BC.
The legion was divided into maniples (Latin for a handful), centuries (hundreds) and decurii (tens), which resembled modern companies, platoons, and squads.

Fig. 1 - Legion structure.

Fig. 2 - Manipular construction.

Light infantry - velites (literally - fast, mobile) walked ahead of the legion in a loose formation and started a battle. In case of failure, she retreated to the rear and flanks of the legion. There were 1200 people in total.
Hastati (from the Latin “gast” - spear) - spearmen, 120 people in a maniple. They formed the first line of the legion. Principles (first) - 120 people in the manipula. Second line. Triarii (third) - 60 people in a maniple. Third line. The triarii were the most experienced and tested fighters. When the ancients wanted to say that the decisive moment had come, they said: “It has come to the triarii.”
Each maniple had two centuries. In the century of hastati or principles there were 60 people, and in the century of triarii there were 30 people.
The legion was assigned 300 horsemen, making up 10 turmas. The cavalry covered the flanks of the legion.
At the very beginning of the use of the manipular order, the legion went into battle in three lines, and if an obstacle was encountered that the legionnaires were forced to flow around, this resulted in a gap in the battle line, the maniple from the second line hurried to close the gap, and the maniple from the second line took the place of the maniple from the third line . During the battle with the enemy, the legion represented a monolithic phalanx.
Over time, the third line of the legion began to be used as a reserve that decided the fate of the battle. But if the commander incorrectly determined the decisive moment of the battle, the legion would face death. Therefore, over time, the Romans switched to the cohort formation of the legion. Each cohort numbered 500-600 people and, with an attached cavalry detachment, acting separately, was a legion in miniature.

Command staff Roman army

In tsarist times, the commander was the king. During the Republic, the consuls commanded, dividing the troops in half, but when it was necessary to unite, they commanded alternately. If there was a serious threat, then a dictator was chosen, to whom the chief of the cavalry was subordinate, as opposed to the consuls. The dictator had unlimited rights. Each commander had assistants who were entrusted with separate parts of the army.
Individual legions were commanded by tribunes. There were six of them per legion. Each pair commanded for two months, replacing each other every day, then giving way to the second pair, etc. The centurions were subordinate to the tribunes. Each century was commanded by a centurion. The commander of the first hundred was the commander of the maniple. Centurions had the right of a soldier for misconduct. They carried with them a vine - a Roman rod; this weapon was rarely left idle. The Roman writer Tacitus talked about one centurion, whom the entire army knew by the nickname: “Pass over the other!” After the reform of Marius, an associate of Sulla, the centurions of the triarii gained great influence. They were invited to a military council.
As in our time, the Roman army had banners, drums, kettledrums, trumpets, and horns. The banners were a spear with a crossbar, on which hung a panel of one-color material. The maniples, and after the reform of Maria the cohorts, had banners. Above the crossbar there was an image of an animal (wolf, elephant, horse, boar...). If a unit accomplished a feat, then it was awarded - the award was attached to the flagpole; this custom has survived to this day.
The badge of the legion under Mary was a silver or bronze eagle. Under the emperors it was made of gold. The loss of the banner was considered the greatest shame. Each legionnaire had to defend the banner to the last drop of blood. In difficult times, the commander threw the banner into the midst of enemies in order to encourage the soldiers to return it back and disperse the enemies.
The first thing the soldiers were taught was to relentlessly follow the badge, the banner. Standard bearers were chosen from strong and experienced soldiers and were held in high esteem and respect.
According to the description of Titus Livy, the banners were a square panel laced to a horizontal crossbar mounted on a pole. The color of the cloth was different. They were all monochromatic - purple, red, white, blue.
Until the Allied infantry merged with the Romans, it was commanded by three prefects chosen from among Roman citizens.
Great importance assigned to the quartermaster service. The head of the quartermaster service was the quaestor, who was in charge of forage and food for the army. He ensured that everything needed was delivered. In addition, each century had its own foragers. A special official, like a captain in a modern army, distributed food to the soldiers. At the headquarters there was a staff of scribes, accountants, cashiers who issued salaries to soldiers, priests-fortunetellers, military police officials, spies, and trumpeter-signal players.
All signals were sent through a pipe. The sound of the trumpet was rehearsed with curved horns. When changing the guard, a futsin trumpet was blown. The cavalry used a special long pipe, curved at the end. The signal to assemble the troops for a general meeting was given by all the trumpeters gathered in front of the commander’s tent.

Training in the Roman Army

The training of the soldiers of the Roman manipular legion primarily consisted of teaching the soldiers to go forward on the orders of the centurion, to fill gaps in the battle line at the moment of collision with the enemy, and to rush to merge into the general mass. Performing these maneuvers required more complex training than that of a warrior fighting in a phalanx.
The training also consisted of the fact that the Roman soldier was sure that he would not be left alone on the battlefield, that his comrades would rush to his aid.
The appearance of legions divided into cohorts, the complication of maneuver, required more complex training. It is no coincidence that after the reform of Marius, one of his associates, Rutilius Rufus, introduced a new training system in the Roman army, which was reminiscent of the system of training gladiators in gladiatorial schools. Only well-trained (trained) soldiers could overcome fear and get close to the enemy, attack a huge mass of the enemy from the rear, feeling only a cohort nearby. Only a disciplined soldier could fight like this. Under Mary, a cohort was introduced, which included three maniples. The legion had ten cohorts, not counting light infantry, and from 300 to 900 horsemen.

Discipline

The Roman army, famous for its discipline, unlike other armies of that time, was entirely at the mercy of the commander.
The slightest violation of discipline was punishable by death, as was failure to comply with orders. So, in 340 BC. the son of the Roman consul Titus Manlius Torquatus, during reconnaissance without orders from the commander-in-chief, entered into battle with the head of the enemy detachment and defeated him. He talked about this in camp with delight. However, the consul sentenced him to death. The sentence was carried out immediately, despite the pleas of the entire army for mercy.
Ten lictors always walked in front of the consul, carrying bundles of rods (fasciae, fascines). In wartime, an ax was inserted into them. A symbol of the consul's power over his men. First, the offender was flogged with rods, then his head was cut off with an ax. If part or all of the army showed cowardice in battle, then decimation was carried out. Decem in Russian means ten. This is what Crassus did after the defeat of several legions by Spartacus. Several hundred soldiers were flogged and then executed.
If a soldier fell asleep at his post, he was put on trial and then beaten to death with stones and sticks. For minor offenses they could be flogged, demoted, transferred to hard work, reduced in salary, deprived of citizenship, or sold into slavery.
But there were also rewards. They could promote them in rank, increase their salary, reward them with land or money, exempt them from camp work, and award them with insignia: silver and gold chains, bracelets. The award ceremony was carried out by the commander himself.
The usual awards were medals (faleres) with the image of a god or commander. The highest insignia were wreaths (crowns). Oak was given to a soldier who saved a fellow Roman citizen in battle. A crown with a battlement - to the one who first climbed the wall or rampart of an enemy fortress. A crown with two golden bows of ships - to the soldier who was the first to step onto the deck of an enemy ship. The siege wreath was given to the commander who lifted the siege of a city or fortress or liberated it. But the highest reward - triumph - was given to the commander for an outstanding victory, in which at least 5,000 enemies had to be killed.
The triumphant rode on a gilded chariot wearing a purple robe embroidered with palm leaves. The chariot was drawn by four snow-white horses. In front of the chariot they carried spoils of war and led prisoners. The triumphant man was followed by relatives and friends, songwriters, and soldiers. Triumphant songs were sung. Every now and then there were shouts of “Io!” and “Triumph!” (“Io!” corresponds to our “Hurray!”). The slave standing behind the triumphant chariot reminded him that he was a mere mortal and not to become arrogant.
For example, the soldiers of Julius Caesar, who were in love with him, followed him, making fun of him and laughing at his baldness.

Roman camp

The Roman camp was well thought out and fortified. The Roman army, as they said, carried the fortress with it. As soon as a halt was made, construction of the camp immediately began. If it was necessary to move on, the camp was abandoned unfinished. Even if it was defeated only for a short time, it differed from a one-day one with more powerful fortifications. Sometimes the army remained in camp for the winter. This type of camp was called a winter camp; instead of tents, houses and barracks were built. By the way, cities such as Lancaster, Rochester and others arose on the site of some Roman camps. Cologne (the Roman colony of Agripinna), Vienna (Vindobona) grew out of the Roman camps... Cities ending in “...chester” or “...castrum” arose on the site of the Roman camps. “Castrum” - camp.
The camp site was chosen on the southern dry slope of the hill. Nearby there should have been water and pasture for the transport's livestock, as well as fuel.
The camp was a square, later a rectangle, the length of which was one third longer than the width. First of all, the location of the praetorium was planned. This is a square area, the side of which is 50 meters. The commander's tents, altars, and a platform for addressing the commander's soldiers were placed here; The trial and the gathering of troops took place here. To the right was the tent of the quaestor, to the left - the legates. There were tribune tents on both sides. In front of the tents, a street 25 meters wide ran through the entire camp; the main street was crossed by another, 12 meters wide. At the ends of the streets there were gates and towers. There were ballistas and catapults on them (the same throwing weapon, got its name from the projectile being thrown, the ballista threw cannonballs, the catapult - arrows). Legionnaires' tents stood in regular rows on the sides. From the camp the troops could set out on a campaign without fuss or disorder. Each century occupied ten tents, and each maniple occupied twenty. The tents had a plank frame, a gable plank roof, and were covered with leather or rough linen. Tent area from 2.5 to 7 square meters. m. A decuria lived in it - 6-10 people, two of whom were constantly on guard. The tents of the Praetorian Guard and cavalry were large. The camp was surrounded by a palisade, a wide and deep ditch and a rampart 6 meters high. There was a distance of 50 meters between the ramparts and the legionnaires' tents. This was done so that the enemy could not set fire to the tents. In front of the camp, an obstacle course was set up consisting of several countervailing lines and barriers made of sharpened stakes, wolf pits, trees with sharpened branches and intertwined, forming an almost impassable obstacle.

There were no socks on sandals and boots (kaligs). The skin was red.

Leggings have been worn by Roman legionnaires since ancient times. They were abolished under the emperors. But the centurions continued to wear them. The leggings had the color of the metal from which they were made, and were sometimes painted.

Rice. 6 - Banners.
1. Legion Banner
2. Cavalry Banner
3. Cohort Banner
4. Banners of the maniples
5. Standard bearer. On their heads, the standard bearers wore the head of a puma or panther.

In the time of Mary the banners were silver, in the times of the empire they were gold. The panels were multi-colored: white, blue, red, purple.

A cavalry sword is one and a half times longer than an infantry sword. The swords were double-edged, the handles were made of bone, wood, and metal.
The pilum is a heavy spear with a metal tip and shaft. Serrated tip. The shaft is wooden. The middle part of the spear is wrapped tightly turn to turn with cord. One or two tassels were made at the end of the cord. The spear tip and shaft were made of soft forged iron, before the iron was made of bronze. The pilum was thrown at the enemy's shields. The spear that dug into the shield pulled it to the bottom, and the warrior was forced to throw the shield, since the spear weighed 4-5 kg and dragged along the ground, as the tip and rod were bent.

Shields (scutums) acquired a semi-cylindrical shape after the war with the Gauls in the 4th century. BC e. Scutums were made from light, well-dried, tightly fitted aspen or poplar boards, covered with linen, and on top with cowhide. The edge of the shield was bordered with a strip of metal (bronze or iron) and the strips were placed in a cross across the center of the shield. In the center was a pointed plaque (umbon) - the top of the shield. The legionnaires kept a razor, money and other small things in it (it was removable). WITH inside there was a belt loop and a metal bracket, the owner's name and the number of the century or cohort were written. The skin could be dyed: red or black. The hand was inserted into the belt loop and grasped by the bracket, thanks to which the shield hung tightly on the hand.

The helmet in the center is earlier, the one on the left is later. The helmet had three feathers 400 mm long; in ancient times, helmets were bronze, later iron. The helmet was sometimes decorated with snakes on the sides, which at the top formed a place where feathers were inserted. In later times, the only decoration on the helmet was the crest. On the top of the head the Roman helmet had a ring into which a strap was threaded. The helmet was worn on the back or lower back, like a modern helmet.

1. Armor made of metal plates, in early times bronze, later iron, most common in the Roman army.
2. Leather armor (the leather was dyed) with metal plates sewn onto it.
3. Scaly shell (made of metal). It consisted of two halves, fastened with belts.
4. A shell made of quilted rough fabric in several layers, soaked in salt. It was as strong as stone. It was cheaper than all the others.

Roman velites were armed with javelins and shields. The shields were round, made of wood or metal. The velites were dressed in tunics; later (after the war with the Gauls) all legionnaires also began to wear trousers. Some of the velites were armed with slings. The slingers had bags for stones hanging on their right side, over their left shoulder. Some velites may have had swords. Shields (wooden) were covered with leather. The color of clothing could be any color except purple and its shades. Velites could wear sandals or walk barefoot. Archers appeared in the Roman army after the defeat of the Romans in the war with Parthia, where the consul Crassus and his son died. The same Crassus who defeated the troops of Spartacus at Brundisium.

The centurions had silver-plated helmets, did not have shields and carried the sword on the right side. They had greaves and, as a distinctive sign on the armor, on the chest they had an image of a grapevine rolled into a ring. During the times of manipular and cohort formation of legions, centurions were on the right flank of centuries, maniples, cohorts. The cloak is red, and all legionnaires wore red cloaks. Only the dictator and senior commanders had the right to wear purple cloaks.

The hastati had a leather armor (could have been linen), a shield, a sword and a pilum. The shell was lined (leather) with metal plates. The tunic is usually red, as is the cloak. Pants could be green, blue, gray.

The principes had exactly the same weapons as the hastati, only instead of a pilum they had ordinary spears.

The triarii were armed in the same way as the hastati and principles, but did not have a pilum, they had an ordinary spear. The shell was metal.

Animal skins served as saddles. The Romans did not know stirrups. The first stirrups were rope loops. The horses were not shod. Therefore, the horses were very taken care of.

Legion (lat. legio, gender legionis, from legio - collecting, recruiting) - the main organizational unit in the army of Ancient Rome.

The legion consisted of 5-6 thousand, in later periods - up to 8 thousand infantry and several hundred horsemen. Every legion had its own number and name. According to surviving written sources, approximately 50 different legions have been identified, although it is believed that their number in each historical period did not exceed twenty-eight, but this could be increased if necessary.

The legion was headed by a military tribune during the Republic period, and by a legate during the Empire period.

Story

Initially, during the era of the Roman kingdom, the entire Roman army was called a legion, which was a slave-owning militia of about 3 thousand infantry and 300 horsemen from wealthy citizens, gathered only during war or for military training.

It was tribal militia, proportionally formed from the composition main genera (curiae) according to the decimal principle - each gender exhibited 100 infantry - centuries and 10 horsemen - a total of 3300 people , every a militia detachment of 1000 people was commanded by a tribune (from tribe - tribe ).

Legion of Servius Tullius (6th century BC)

The organization of the legion was based on universal conscription for citizens, property qualification and age division - more senior legionaries were in reserves and garrisons, the high command - two military tribunes.

The main tactical formation of a legion is a phalanx of heavily armed infantry, with cavalry on the flanks and light infantry outside the phalanx formation.

The armament of the 1st and 2nd rows consisted of wealthier legionnaires, armed with a sword, spear, darts, dressed in bronze armor, helmet, round shield, greaves; the next 6 rows of the phalanx had lighter weapons.

Legion of the Roman Republic period

IN early period The Roman Republic, the country was led by two consuls, the Roman army - the legion was divided into two separate legions, each of which was subordinate to one of the consuls.

In the early years of the Roman Republic, military operations consisted mainly of armed raids by forces legion.

As the wars waged by the Roman Republic became more frequent and nature of planned combat operations . In the 4th century BC. e. each consul was already subordinate to two legions, and their total number increased to four. If it was necessary to conduct a military campaign, additional legions were recruited.

From 331 BC. e. At the head of each legion stood a military tribune. The internal structure of the legion became more complex, the battle formation was changed from the classical phalanx to manipular, and at the same time the tactics of combat use of the legions were improved.

From the beginning of the 4th century BC. e. The soldiers were given a small salary. The legion began to number 3000 heavy infantry (principles, hastati, triarii), 1200 light infantry (velites) and 300 cavalry men.

Legion organization IV century BC e. — 4200 infantry in 30 maniples - tactical departments 60-120 warriors each , consisting of 2 centuries, consolidated into 10 cohorts , And 300 horsemen in 10 tours.

Legion battle tactics : transition from a phalanx to a manipular formation with a clear division into 3 lines and manipular units in a row with intervals. The combat formation of the legion consisted of 3 lines of 10 maniples each.

Hastati - 1200 people = 10 maniples = 20 centuries of 60 people - 1 row;
Principles - 1200 people = 10 maniples = 20 centuries of 60 people - 2nd row;
Triarii - 600 people = 10 maniples = 20 centuries of 30 people - 3rd row;
Light Infantry - velites, out of formation - 1200 people;
Cavalry on the flanks.
By the beginning of the 2nd Punic War (218 BC-201 BC), the number of infantry was increased to 5000-5200 people by increasing the number of individual centuries.

They were attached to the legion detachments of the allied forces (alas, from allae - wings), located on the flanks under the command of prefects - performing the functions of tribunes of units of the allied forces of the legion. Auxiliary units - auxiliaries, later became part of the army.

Universal conscription led to the ruin of the free peasantry and therefore conscription was abolished, soldiers' salaries were increased, and The Roman army became a professional mercenary army.

IN Republic era The legion included the following units:

Cavalry (horses) . Heavy cavalry was originally the most prestigious branch of the military, where wealthy Roman youth could demonstrate their valor and skill, thereby laying the foundations for their future political career. The cavalryman himself bought weapons and equipment e - round shield, helmet, armor, sword and spears. The legion numbered approximately 300 cavalrymen, divided into curios - divisions 30 people each under the command of a decurion . In addition to the heavy cavalry, there was also light cavalry , which was recruited from poor citizens and young rich citizens who were not old enough to become hastati or horsemen.

Light infantry (velites). Velites, armed with darts and swords, did not have a strictly defined place and purpose in the battle order. They were used where there was a need.

Heavy infantry . The main combat unit of the legion. It consisted of citizen legionnaires who could afford to purchase equipment, which included a bronze helmet, shield, armor and a short suit. spear - dart - pilum, Gladius is a short sword. Before reforms Gaius Marius, who abolished the division of infantry into classes, which turned legions into a professional army, heavy infantry was subdivided , in accordance with the combat experience of legionnaires into three lines of battle formation :

Hastati (hastatus) - the youngest - 1st row
Principles - warriors in their prime (25-35 years old) - 2nd row
Triarii (triarius) - veterans - in the last row; in battle they were used only in the most desperate situations.
Each of the three lines was divided into tactical units - maniples of 60-120 warriors, making up 2 centuries under the command of the senior of two centurions (centurion II rank). Nominally, the century consisted of 100 warriors, but in reality it could number up to 60 people, especially in the triarii maniples.

In battle, maniples were usually located in a checkerboard pattern - quincunx. The maniples of the principles covered the gap between the hastati, and those were covered by the maniples of the triarii.

Late Republic Legion

Organization of the legion after the reform of Gaius Marius - cohorts replace maniples as the main tactical unit of the legion. The cohort consists of 6 centuries. There were also specialized cohorts, such as firefighters.

The legion consisted of approximately 4,800 legionnaires and a significant number of support staff, servants and slaves. A legion could consist of up to 6,000 warriors, although at times their number was reduced to 1,000 in order to deprive wayward commanders of support. The legions of Julius Caesar numbered approximately 3300 - 3600 people.

Each legion was assigned auxiliary troops of almost the same size - this included numerous specialists - sappers, scouts, doctors, standard bearers, secretaries, personnel of throwing weapons and siege towers, various service units and units of non-citizens - light cavalry, light infantry, weapons workshop workers. They were granted Roman citizenship upon dismissal from military service.

Political role of the legions

During the era of the late Roman Republic and Empire, legions began to play a serious political role. It is no coincidence that Augustus, after the severe defeat of the Romans in the Teutoburg Forest (9 AD), cried out, clutching his head, - "Quintilius Varus, give me back my legions". Legions are a military force that ensures the future emperor seizes and maintains power in Rome - or, conversely, a force capable of depriving him of power. In an attempt to mitigate the possible threat of the use of the military power of the legions by pretenders to power in Rome, provincial governors were forbidden to leave their province along with the troops under their command. Julius Caesar crossed into 42 BC e. border river Rubicon (Latin Rubicō, Italian Rubicone), speaking from the province of Cisalpine Gaul (now northern Italy) and brought his troops to Italy, this caused a crisis in Rome.

The legions also played a huge role in the Romanization of the “barbarian” (non-Roman) population. The Roman legions were stationed on the borders of the Empire, and attracted traders from the center and thus cultural exchange took place between the Roman world and the “barbarians” - neighboring peoples.

Imperial Legions

Under Emperor Augustus (63 BC - 14 AD), who served as consul 13 times, the number of legions increased greatly over time civil wars, was reduced and amounted to by the end of his reign 25 legions.

The transition during the imperial era to the creation of a larger number of permanent legions was caused mainly by internal reasons - the desire to ensure the loyalty of the legions to the emperor, and not to the military leaders. The names of the legions came from the names of the provinces in which they were created - Italic, Macedonian.

The legion began to be led by a legate (lat. legatus) - usually this was a senator of about thirty years old, who held this position for three years. They were directly subordinate to him six military tribunes - five staff officers and the sixth - a candidate for senator.

Legion officers
Senior officers

Legate of the Legion (lat. Legatus Legionis) - Commander of the legion. The emperor usually appointed a former tribune for three to four years ah, but the legate could hold his post for much longer. In the provinces where one legion was stationed, the legate was also the governor of the province. Where there were several legions, each had its own legate, and they were all under the general command of the governor of the province.

Tribune Laticlavius (Tribunus Laticlavius) - this tribune was appointed to the legion by the emperor or the senate. He was usually young and had less experience than the five military tribunes (Latin Tribuni Angusticlavii), nevertheless, his position was the second most senior in the legion, immediately after the legate. The job title comes from the word "laticlava" - meaning two wide purple stripes on the tunic , due to officials of senatorial rank.

Camp Prefect (lat. Praefectus Castrorum) - the third most senior post in the legion. It was usually occupied by a promoted veteran soldier who had previously held the post of one of the centurions.

Tribunes of Angustiklavii (lat. Tribuni Angusticlavii) - each legion had five military tribunes from the equestrian class. Most often, these were professional military men who held high administrative positions in the legion, and during hostilities they could command the legion. They were supposed to tunics with narrow purple stripes (lat. angusticlava).

Primipil (lat. Primus Pilus) - the highest-ranking centurion of the legion, standing at the head of the first double century. In the first and second centuries AD, upon dismissal from military service Primipil was included in the class of horsemen and could achieve a high equestrian position. The name literally means "first rank" . Due to the similarity of the words pilus - line, and pilum - "pilum, throwing spear", the term is sometimes incorrectly translated as "centurion of the first spear".

Average officers

Centurions . In every the legion had 59 centurions, each of whom commanded a century. Centurions were the backbone of the professional Roman army. These were professional warriors who lived everyday life their subordinate soldiers, and during the battle they commanded them. Usually this post was received veteran soldiers , however, one could become a centurion by direct decree of the emperor or other high-ranking official. The cohorts were numbered from the first to the tenth, and the centuries within the cohorts were numbered from the first to the sixth. Moreover, in the first cohort there were only five centuries, but the first century was double - thus, there were 58 centurions and primipiles in the legion. The number of the century commanded by each centurion directly reflected his position in the legion, that is the highest position was occupied by the centurion of the first century of the first cohort, and the lowest - centurion of the sixth century of the tenth cohort. The five centurions of the first cohort were called "Primi Ordines". In each cohort, the centurion of the first century was called "Pilus Prior".

Junior officers

Standard bearer (lat. Aquilifer) . An extremely important and prestigious post ( Aquilifer - "carrying an eagle"). The loss of the banner (“eagle”) was considered a terrible dishonor. The next step up the ranks is becoming a centurion.

Standard bearer (lat. Signifer). Each century had a treasurer who was responsible for paying the soldiers' salaries and safeguarding their savings. He was carrying combat badge of a century (Signum) - a spear shaft decorated with medallions. At the top of the shaft there was often an image of an open palms - a sign of oath, given by the soldiers.

Option (lat. Optio) . Assistant to the centurion, replaced the centurion in battle if he was wounded. He was chosen as a centurion from among his soldiers.
Tesserary (lat. Tesserarius). Assistant option. His duties included organizing guards and transmitting passwords.
Bugler (lat. Cornicen). He was next to the standard bearer, giving commands to gather to the battle badge and transmitting the commander’s orders to the soldiers with bugle signals.
Imaginifer- carried a standard with the image of the emperor, which served as a constant reminder of the army’s loyalty to the emperor.
Standard bearer (lat. Vexillarius). Carried the standard of a certain infantry or cavalry unit of the Roman troops.

Reforms of Octavian Augustus

The legate of the legion is the only commander, the first cohort has double the number of people, and the post of camp prefect is introduced.

Military service is permitted for provincial residents, but command positions are only for Roman citizens.

Military service in auxiliary units gives citizenship to immigrants and increases their salaries.

Leggings are no longer used in army weapons! In the 1st century AD Segmented armor appears in the German legions. During Trajan's Dacian campaign, foot soldiers are used bracers.

Hadrian's reforms

Organization: increasing the powers of the tribunes, reducing the powers of the centurions.

Formation: legions are formed in places of permanent deployment.

Armament: Cavalry equipment is being improved.

Reforms of Septimius Severus

Organization: the camp prefect becomes the prefect of the legion and takes on part of its powers.

Formation: Non-citizens are allowed to hold command positions.

Weapon: the long sword of the spatha is replacing the traditional gladius, which indirectly indicates a change in the nature of combat formations, because with a long sword it is easier to fight in a less dense formation than with a gladius, which is openly adapted for a dense formation.

Gallienus' reforms

Organization: senators are prohibited from holding military positions (while prefects from among the equestrians finally replace legates at the head of the legions), the posts of military tribunes are abolished.

Reforms of Diocletian and Constantine

Legionnaire from the northern provinces of the Roman Empire, 3rd century. (modern reconstruction) Constantine divided the army into two parts - relatively light border troops and heavy soldiers of the field army (the former were supposed to restrain the enemy, and the latter to destroy him)

Organization: transition to recruiting border legions from barbarians, division of the legions - a maximum of 1000 people with a tribune at the head, a significant part of the army serves within the country, cavalry is no longer assigned to the legions.

From the 3rd century AD e. the fighting qualities of the legions are gradually declining due to the barbarization of the army, in addition, cavalry is beginning to play an increasingly important role.

The legions (now largely composed of Germans) were formed into columns, switched to the spear instead of the javelin and sword, and their armor was significantly lightened. At the end of the existence of the Western Roman Empire, they give way to mercenary barbarian units, but the last legion was disbanded already in the Byzantine Empire.

Legions in new history

The name "legion" was used in the 16th-20th centuries. for military units of irregular strength, usually volunteer. The French Foreign Legion is especially famous.

Organization of the Roman army

The Roman army consisted of:

a) legions in which the Romans themselves served, consisting of heavy and light infantry and cavalry assigned to them;

b) Italian allies and allied cavalry (after granting citizenship rights to the Italians who joined the legion);

c) auxiliary troops recruited from the inhabitants of the provinces.

The main tactical unit was the legion. At the time of Servius Tullius, the legion numbered 4,200 men and 900 horsemen, not counting 1,200 lightly armed soldiers who were not part of the legion's combat ranks.

Consul Marcus Claudius changed the structure of the legion and weapons. This happened in the 4th century BC.

The legion was divided into maniples (in Latin - a handful), centuries (hundreds) and decurii (tens), which resembled modern companies, platoons, squads

Light Infantry - velites(literally - fast, agile) walked ahead of the legion in a loose story and started a battle. In case of failure, she retreated to the rear and flanks of the legion. There were 1200 people in total.

Hastati(from the Latin “hasta” - spear) - spearmen, 120 people in a maniple. They formed the first line of the legion. Principles(first) – 120 people in the manipula. Second line. Triarii (third) – 60 people in a maniple. Third line. Triarii were the most experienced and tested fighters. When the ancients wanted to say that the decisive moment had come, they said: “It has come to the triarii.”

Each maniple had two centuries. In the century of hastati or principles there were 60 people, and in the century of triarii there were 30 people.

The legion was assigned 300 horsemen, making up 10 turmas. The cavalry covered the flanks of the legion.

At the very beginning of the use of the manipular order, the legion went into battle in three lines and, if an obstacle was encountered that the legionnaires were forced to flow around, this resulted in a gap in the battle line, the maniple from the second line hurried to close the gap, and the maniple from the second line took the place of the maniple from the third line . During the battle with the enemy, the legion represented a monolithic phalanx.

Over time, the third line of the legion began to be used as a reserve that decided the fate of the battle. But if the commander incorrectly determined the decisive moment of the battle, the legion would face death. Therefore, over time, the Romans switched to the cohort formation of the legion. Each cohort numbered 500-600 people and, with an attached cavalry detachment, acting separately, was a legion in miniature.

Command structure of the Roman army

Individual legions were commanded by tribunes. There were six of them per legion. Each pair commanded for two months, replacing each other every day, then giving the second pair their place, etc. The centurions were subordinate to the tribunes. Each century was commanded by a centurion. The commander of the first hundred was the commander of the maniple. Centurions had the right of a soldier for misconduct. They carried with them a vine - a Roman rod; this weapon was rarely left idle. The Roman writer Tacitus talked about one centurion, whom the entire army knew by the nickname: “Pass over the other!” After the reform of Marius, an associate of Sulla, the centurions of the triarii gained great influence. They were invited to a military council.

As in our time, the Roman army had banners, drums, kettledrums, trumpets, and horns. The banners were a spear with a crossbar, on which hung a panel of one-color material. The maniples, and after the reform of Maria the cohorts, had banners. Above the crossbar there was an image of an animal (wolf, elephant, horse, boar...). If a unit accomplished a feat, then it was awarded - the award was attached to the flagpole; this custom has survived to this day.

The badge of the legion under Mary was a silver or bronze eagle. Under the emperors it was made of gold. The loss of the banner was considered the greatest shame. Each legionnaire had to defend the banner to the last drop of blood. In difficult times, the commander threw the banner into the midst of enemies in order to encourage the soldiers to return it back and disperse the enemies.

The first thing the soldiers were taught was to relentlessly follow the badge, the banner. Standard bearers were chosen from strong and experienced soldiers and were held in high esteem and respect.

According to the description of Titus Livy, the banners were a square panel laced to a horizontal crossbar mounted on a pole. The color of the cloth was different. They were all monochromatic - purple, red, white, blue.

Until the Allied infantry merged with the Romans, it was commanded by three prefects chosen from among Roman citizens.

Great importance was attached to the quartermaster service. The head of the quartermaster service was the quaestor, who was in charge of forage and food for the army. He ensured that everything needed was delivered. In addition, each century had its own foragers. A special official, like a captain in a modern army, distributed food to the soldiers. At the headquarters there was a staff of scribes, accountants, cashiers who issued salaries to soldiers, priests-fortunetellers, military police officials, spies, and trumpeter-signal players.

All signals were sent through a pipe. The sound of the trumpet was rehearsed with curved horns. When changing the guard, a futsin trumpet was blown. The cavalry used a special long pipe, curved at the end. The signal to assemble the troops for a general meeting was given by all the trumpeters gathered in front of the commander’s tent.

Training in the Roman Army

The training also consisted of the fact that the Roman soldier was sure that he would not be left alone on the battlefield, that his comrades would rush to his aid.

The appearance of legions divided into cohorts, the complication of maneuver, required more complex training. It is no coincidence that after the reform of Marius, one of his associates, Rutilius Rufus, introduced a new training system in the Roman army, which was reminiscent of the system of training gladiators in gladiatorial schools. Only well-trained (trained) soldiers could overcome fear and get close to the enemy, attack a huge mass of the enemy from the rear, sensing only a cohort nearby. Only a disciplined soldier could fight like this. Under Mary, a cohort was introduced, which included three maniples. The legion had ten cohorts, not counting light infantry, and from 300 to 900 horsemen.

Discipline

The Roman army, famous for its discipline, unlike other armies of that time, was entirely at the mercy of the commander.

The slightest violation of discipline was punishable by death, as was failure to comply with orders. So, in 340 BC. the son of the Roman consul Titus Manlius Torquatus, during reconnaissance without orders from the commander-in-chief, entered into battle with the head of the enemy detachment and defeated him. He talked about this in camp with delight. However, the consul sentenced him to death. The sentence was carried out immediately, despite the pleas of the entire army for mercy.

Ten lictors always walked in front of the consul, carrying bundles of rods (fasciae, fascines). In wartime, an ax was inserted into them. A symbol of the consul's power over his men. First, the offender was flogged with rods, then his head was cut off with an ax. If part or all of the army showed cowardice in battle, then decimation was carried out. Decem in Russian means ten. This is what Crassus did after the defeat of several legions by Spartacus. Several hundred soldiers were flogged and then executed.

If a soldier fell asleep at his post, he was put on trial and then beaten to death with stones and sticks. For minor offenses they could be flogged, demoted, transferred to hard work, reduced in salary, deprived of citizenship, or sold into slavery.

But there were also rewards. They could promote them in rank, increase their salary, reward them with land or money, exempt them from camp work, and award them with insignia: silver and gold chains, bracelets. The award ceremony was carried out by the commander himself.

The usual awards were medals (faleres) with the image of a god or commander. The highest insignia were wreaths (crowns). Oak was given to a soldier who saved a comrade - a Roman citizen - in battle. A crown with a battlement - to the one who first climbed the wall or rampart of an enemy fortress. A crown with two golden bows of ships - to the soldier who was the first to step onto the deck of an enemy ship. The siege wreath was given to the commander who lifted the siege of a city or fortress or liberated it. But the highest reward - triumph - was given to the commander for an outstanding victory, in which at least 5,000 enemies had to be killed.

The triumphant rode on a gilded chariot wearing a purple robe embroidered with palm leaves. The chariot was drawn by four snow-white horses. In front of the chariot they carried spoils of war and led prisoners. The triumphant man was followed by relatives and friends, songwriters, and soldiers. Triumphant songs were sung. Every now and then there were shouts of “Io!” and “Triumph!” (“Io!” corresponds to our “Hurray!”). The slave standing behind the triumphant chariot reminded him that he was a mere mortal and not to become arrogant.

For example, the soldiers of Julius Caesar, who were in love with him, followed him, making fun of him and laughing at his baldness.

Legion soldiers.

Velites

Centurion

The centurions had silver-plated helmets, did not have shields and carried the sword on the right side. They had greaves and, as a distinctive sign on the armor, on the chest they had an image of a grapevine rolled into a ring. During the times of manipular and cohort formation of legions, centurions were on the right flank of centuries, maniples, cohorts. The cloak was red, and all legionnaires wore red cloaks. Only the dictator and senior commanders had the right to wear purple cloaks.

Hastati

Principles

The principes had exactly the same weapons as the hastati, only instead of a pilum they had ordinary spears.

Triarii

The triarii were armed in the same way as the hastati and principles, but did not have a pilum, they had an ordinary spear. The shell was metal.