The official language of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Bosnia and Herzegovina

After Yugoslavia broke up into several independent republics. Today, Bosnian is spoken in Bosnia and Herzegovina, however, knowing it, you can safely travel around Croatia, Montenegro and Serbia, without encountering a language barrier.

A bit of history

The Bosnian, Croatian, Serbian and Montenegrin languages ​​are based on the same dialect, which makes all these languages ​​almost identical. During the existence of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, there was no official division: there was one common Serbo-Croatian language.

To date, the Bosnian language does not have a single recognition. The fact is that there is a literary language of the Bosniaks, that is, ethnic Muslims, while the Bosnians are the Bosnians themselves, and the Bosnian Orthodox Serbs, and the Catholic Croats.

Influence of the East

Bosnian is the language of part of the South Slavs living in Bosnia and in a certain area in Serbia (the so-called Novopazar Sanjak, on the Serbian-Montenegrin border). It is also one of the official languages ​​in Kosovo.

Although Bosnian is similar to Serbian, Montenegrin and Croatian, it still has one distinct difference from all. Ever since the reign of the Ottoman Empire in the Balkans, it was the Bosnians, as Muslims, who adopted many Turkish, as well as Persian and Arabisms into speech. Serbs also use Turkish borrowings, but much less frequently.

Islam came to the Bosnian territories along with the Turks, and local feudal lords, under the threat of deprivation of their property, converted to this religion. Thus, in the 16th century, Islam completely replaced Christianity in the upper strata of the population, greatly influencing the vocabulary of the language.

Features of the Bosnian language

As mentioned above, the state language of Bosnia and Herzegovina differs from its neighbors primarily by a large number of Turkish words. Turkishisms are considered to be not only the original words of the Turkish language, found in pure form in Bosnian, but also words that eventually adjusted to the Slavic word formation.

You can take for example the word kapija, which means "gate / gate" in Bosnian. it Turkish word kapı, which translates as "gate". Or the Bosnian (and not only) word jastuk (pillow), which was formed from the Turkish yastık (pillow).

Among other Turkishisms, the following are found:

1. Ahlak moral - good behavior.
2. Čardak (chardak) - the top floor in the house. Interestingly, in Serbian, the word Čardak refers to a small storehouse for corn.
3. Divaniti - to talk.
4. Džennet - paradise.
5. Džemat - company, circle of friends.

This is far from full list Turkish borrowings in Bosnian. However, this is not its only feature. In addition to the fact that Bosnian is heavily Turkishized, blotches from the Serbian language are gradually being squeezed out of it and replaced by Croatian ones, although some stable Serbian words remain, for example, niko (no one), and not the Croatian nitko in the same meaning.

And the third feature of the Bosnian language is the use of the consonant phoneme h in some words:

How to learn Bosnian

The language spoken in Bosnia and Herzegovina is very multicultural. As mentioned earlier, it is Slavic With big impurity from Turkish, Persian and Arabic. However, people who have previously learned, for example, the Croatian language, will easily understand Bosnian.

It is quite easy for a Russian-speaking person to learn the Bosnian language, because it is similar to Russian. In addition, today there is a huge selection of applications and sites for learning foreign languages, even not very popular ones. It is worth entering "we learn the Bosnian language" into the search engine line, and it will give out a huge number of different sites, dictionaries, phrasebooks, and methods for learning this language.

Authors: F. A. Aleksenko ( General information, Population, Economy), V. P. Shram (State system), M. A. Arshinova (Nature), V. E. Khain (Nature: geological structure and minerals), K. V. Nikiforov (Historical essay), A. N. Prokinova (Healthcare), G. V. Prutskov (Funds mass media), S. N. Meshcheryakov (Literature), N. M. Vagapova (Theatre), V. N. Gorelov (Cinema)Authors: F. A. Aleksenko (General information, Population, Economy), V. P. Shram (State system), M. A. Arshinova (Nature), V. E. Khain (Nature: geological structure and minerals); >>

BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA(Bosna i Hercegovina, BiH).

General information

Bosnia and Herzegovina is a state in the south of Eastern Europe, in the western part of the Balkan Peninsula. In the north, northwest, west and southwest it borders with Croatia, in the east with Serbia, in the southeast with Montenegro (the total length of land borders is 1543 km). In the southeast, it faces the coast of the Adriatic Sea (about 20 km long). The area is 51.2 thousand km 2. Population 3531.2 thousand people. (2013, census). The capital is Sarajevo. official languages- Bosnian (Bosan), Serbian and Croatian (see. Serbo-Croatian). The monetary unit is the convertible mark (KM).

It consists of two entities (from Latin entitas - something that exists on its own, as a subject or object) - the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina (area 26.2 thousand km 2, or 51.2% of the country's territory; population 2219.2 thousand people, 2013, or 62.8% of its total number) and the Republic of Srpska (area 24.6 thousand km 2, 48.0%; population 1228.4 thousand people, 34.8%). Brcko community (the only narrow corridor connecting the two parts of the Republika Srpska in the extreme north-east of the country; area 402 km 2, or 0.8% of the country's territory; population 83.5 thousand people, or 2.4% of its total number) has the status of a special district and is a condominium of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Republika Srpska. In administrative-territorial terms, the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina is divided into 10 cantons (table 1) (they include 79 communities, or municipalities), the Republika Srpska - into 6 regions (63 communities). Regions of Republika Srpska: Banja Luka (includes 2 sub-regions: Mrkonjic Grad and Gradiska; 15 communities in total), Bijelina (includes Zvornik sub-region; 12 communities), Doboj (8 communities), Istochno Sarajevo (East Sarajevo; includes Foca sub-region; 15 communities), Prijedor (6 communities) and Trebinje (7 communities).

Table 1. Administrative-territorial division of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina

Canton	Area, thousand km 2	Population, thousand people (2013)	Administrative center
Bosnian Podrinsky (3 communities)	0,5	23,7	Gorazde
Hercegbosan (West Bosnian, Canton 10) (6 communities)	3,4	84,1	Livno
Herzegovino-Neretvensky (9 communities)	4,4	222,0	Mostar
West Herzegovina (4 communities)	4,1	94,9	Shiroki Brieg
Zenitsko-Doboisky (12 communities)	1,4	364,4	Zenica
Posavsky (3 communities)	4,9	43,5	Orashje
Sarajevo (9 communities)	0,3	413,6	Sarajevo
Middle Bosnian (12 communities)	1,3	254,7	Herbalist
Tuzlansky (13 communities)	3,2	445,0	Tuzla
Unsko-Sansky (8 communities)	2,7	273,3	Bihac

Bosnia and Herzegovina is a member of the UN (1992), CSCE (1992; since 1995 - OSCE), Council of Europe (2002), IMF (1992), IBRD (1993), Central European Free Trade Association (CEFTA; 2007); WTO observer. The Stabilization and Association Agreement with the European Union was signed on June 16, 2008 and entered into force on June 1, 2015.

Political system

Bosnia and Herzegovina- a federal state, including the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Republika Srpska. constitution Bosnia and Herzegovina adopted on 12/14/1995. The form of government is a parliamentary republic.

The function of the head of state is entrusted to a collegial body - the Presidium Bosnia and Herzegovina, consisting of 3 members: one Bosniak and one Croat (elected directly from Bosnia and Herzegovina) and one Serb (elected directly from Republika Srpska). The term of office of the Presidium is 4 years (with the right of one re-election). The members of the Presidium elect a chairman from among their members. The Presidium determines the main directions foreign policy states; appoints ambassadors and other representatives of the state abroad; represents in international organizations; conducts negotiations, etc. Each member of the Presidium, by virtue of his position, has the authority to lead armed forces country.

The highest legislative body is a bicameral parliament (Parliamentary Assembly). The House of Representatives (lower house) consists of 42 deputies: 2/3 are elected by the population from Bosnia and Herzegovina, and 1 / 3 - from the Republika Srpska under the proportional system for a period of 4 years. The House of Peoples (upper house) consists of 15 deputies: 2/3 are elected by the national parliaments from Bosnia and Herzegovina(including 5 deputies from Croats and 5 deputies from Bosniaks) and 1 / 3 - from the Republika Srpska (5 deputies from Serbs).

Executive power belongs to the Council of Ministers. The Chairman of the Council of Ministers is appointed by the Presidium Bosnia and Herzegovina after the approval of the House of Representatives.

AT Bosnia and Herzegovina there is a multi-party system; the main political parties are the Democratic Action Party, the Party for Bosnia and Herzegovina, the Serbian Democratic Party, the Social Democratic Party of Bosnia and Herzegovina, the Croatian Democratic Union / Christian Democratic Party.

Nature

Relief

Most of the territory Bosnia and Herzegovina located within Dinaric highlands. From the northwest to the southeast, mostly flat-topped, strongly dissected, often with steep slopes, mountain ranges and extensive intermountain basins stretch parallel to each other. In the northern and southern parts, hills and low mountains prevail, in the central part - mid-mountain and high-mountain massifs, in the southeast reaching 2386 m (the highest point Bosnia and Herzegovina- Mount Maglich). Karst landforms are widespread - bare limestone rocks, karrs, caves, underground rivers. In the intermountain basins, vast fields were formed, including Livansko-Pole (405 km 2). In the southwest there is a short (about 20 km) section of the mountainous coast of the Adriatic Sea. In the north, along the valley of the Sava River, there is a plain with flat watersheds and wide river valleys (the southern part Middle Danube).

Geological structure and minerals

The territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina is located within the Dinaric fold system (the so-called Dinarids) of the Cenozoic Alpine-Himalayan mobile belt, which is characterized by a cover-zonal structure. The outer (western) zones are composed of Paleozoic, Mesozoic and Paleogene sedimentary strata folded into folds and disturbed thrusts and covers and represent fragments of the cover of the Adria continental block (located to the west, in the water area of ​​the Adriatic Sea) torn off at different stages of Alpine tectogenesis. The inner (eastern) zones are formed by covers of the Jurassic ophiolites, Cretaceous limestones and Cretaceous-Paleogene flysch– fragments of the crust of the Neotethys oceanic basin (see article Tethys ). There are intrusions of Cenozoic granitoids. Small depressions are filled with Neogene coal-bearing deposits. The territory of the country is highly seismic. As a result of the catastrophic earthquake of 1969, the city of Banja Luka was largely destroyed.

The most important minerals: bauxites [deposits of mainly karst type: near Vlasenica (very large), Milichi - both Republika Srpska, Bijelina region; in the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina - near Jajce, Central Bosnian canton; near Bosanska-Krupa, Unsko-Sansky canton, etc.], iron ores (Lyubiya deposit - Republika Srpska, Prijedor region; as well as ore areas of Varesh, Omarska), lead and zinc ores (in the Srebrenica area - Republika Srpska, Bijelina region ), brown coal (Banovichi and Central Bosnian basins - in the Tuzla, Zenitsko-Dobojsky and Central Bosnian cantons of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Bijelina region of the Republic of Srpska), lignites (in the western, northern, northeastern and southern regions of the country).

Deposits of manganese (near Bosanska-Krupa; Buzhim, Chevlyanovichi), mercury (Drazhevich) ores have been discovered. There are deposits of rock salt (near Tuzla), barite (Kreshevo), asbestos (Bosansko-Petrovo-Selo), graphite, dolomite, bentonite, kaolin, gypsum and anhydrite, building stones (porphyries, basalts, granites, carbonate rocks, marble and etc.), sand and gravel, mineral and thermal waters.

Climate

Most of the country has a temperate continental climate. Summers are warm (average air temperatures in July are 19–21 °C in the plains, 12–18 °C in the mountains). Winter is moderately cool (average air temperatures in January are from 0 to -2 °C in the plains, from -4 to -7 °C in the mountains). 800–1000 mm of atmospheric precipitation evenly falls annually on the plains and 1500–1800 mm in the mountains. In the southwest and south of B. and G., the climate is subtropical Mediterranean, with hot, dry summers (average air temperatures in July 25°C) and warm, humid winters (average air temperatures in January 5°C). Up to 1600 mm of atmospheric precipitation falls annually with a maximum in November - December.

Inland waters

AT Bosnia and Herzegovina- a dense and branched river network with a total length of over 2000 km. About 3/4 of the territory belongs to the Danube river basin. The main rivers are the Sava with the tributaries Una, Sana, Vrbas, Bosna, Drina flowing mainly from south to north. The largest of the rivers of the Adriatic Sea basin (1 / 4 of the territory Bosnia and Herzegovina) - Neretva. The largest lakes Bushko and Bilechko are of karst origin. Annually renewable water resources are 37.5 km 3 , water supply is 9.8 thousand m 3 per person per year (2014). Mountain rivers have significant hydropower potential; created ca. 30 reservoirs. For economic purposes, about 1% of available water resources are used (2012), physical losses of water are significant due to the unfavorable state of water supply systems (up to 50% of the total water intake).

Soils, flora and fauna

In the valleys of the Sava River and its tributaries, fertile alluvial soils are widespread, in the mountains - brown soils. Forests cover 53% of the country's area (2015). On the plains of the north Bosnia and Herzegovina Indigenous broad-leaved forests have been replaced by agricultural land. The modern forest cover is dominated by piedmont and mountain broad-leaved, predominantly beech forests (up to 40%). In the foothills and on the northern slopes of the mountains, up to a height of 500 m, oak-hornbeam forests grow with an admixture of maple, linden, and elm. In the central regions, beech forests are widespread, at an altitude of 800–900 m they give way to beech-fir forests with an admixture of pine and spruce. In the southeast, in the belt of mixed and coniferous forests, endemic Serbian spruce is occasionally found. Above 1600–1700 m there are crooked forests of mountain pine and subalpine meadows. Maquis with holm oak, red juniper and other predominantly evergreen shrub species is common on brown soils on southwestern slopes, and frigana on stony slopes. Above 300–400 m, patches of primary forests of downy and holm oaks, hornbeam, and French maple are combined with shiblyak thickets on rendzins.

The fauna includes more than 85 species of mammals, over 320 species of birds, 38 species of reptiles and 20 species of amphibians, 119 species of freshwater fish (20% of Europe's freshwater ichthyofauna). Red deer, roe deer, brown bear, wolf, wild boar, European lynx, forest cat, pine marten live in the forests. Reptiles are numerous in the karst regions. In the swampy lower reaches of the Neretva River (Khutovo-Blato Nature Park) there are more than 160 species of birds, the little cormorant, little white heron, gray heron, night heron, etc. nest.

State and environmental protection

The unfavorable environmental consequences of the military conflict of the 1990s persist: minefields occupy up to 3% of the country's territory (2012), in some areas at the site of the former placement of ammunition, soil and water are subject to pollution, and the problems of toxic waste disposal and infrastructure restoration have not been fully resolved. Environmental problems Bosnia and Herzegovina also associated with the lack unified system spatial planning, environmental monitoring and land monitoring. Landscapes are severely disturbed in places where minerals are mined; 900 hectares of land are lost annually during open-pit mining. The southern and central parts of the country are highly prone to erosion (including due to irrational exploitation of forests) and landslides. In the cities of Sarajevo, Banja Luka, Tuzla, levels of pollution with sulfur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide, particulate matter are significant. In connection with the insufficiently developed system of water treatment, pollution of surface waters is an acute problem. Discharge of polluted wastewater 93.7 million m 3 (2013), most of the rivers are polluted with nitrogen and phosphorus compounds (Bosna, Drina, Neretva, etc.). 24 species of mammals, 97 species of birds and 11 species of reptiles are endangered.

AT Bosnia and Herzegovina 23 protected natural areas occupying 1.96% of the country's area (2014), including national parks Sutjeska, Kozara, Una; 2 reserves with a strict conservation regime, 5 natural parks. Wetlands of international importance, protected under the Ramsar Convention, include 3 territories with a total square. 56.8 thousand hectares, including Livansko-Polye.

Population

From Ser. 19th century along with the revival of the activities of local traveling troupes, the process of forming a stationary theater of the European type began. A significant contribution to the development of theatrical culture was made by local amateur actors (A. Banovich and his troupe) and foreign diplomats, who gave private theater evenings in Sarajevo. So, in 1865, an amateur troupe led by S. Petranovich played Judith by K. F. for a select audience. Hebbel. Around 1867, several performances were performed by amateur artists from a theater organized by the English consul. The props of this theater were purchased by Sarajevo businessmen, the Despich brothers. Performances were given at their home in 1870–78. Troupes of "amateurs" from Serbia and Croatia toured (often illegally) in Sarajevo and other cities , local traveling troupes played, such as the Peles Group (1879). Between 1881 and 1894, a theater operated in Sarajevo under the direction of the German entrepreneur G. Spira. Drama circles existed under popular amateur musical groups in Bosnia. Attempts at the turn of the 19th–20th centuries. to create in Sarajevo a permanent (troupe of D. Ginich), a traveling (troupe of M. Tsrnogorchevich; both 1898) or an amateur (1912) theater playing in the Serbian language, were suppressed by the authorities of Austria-Hungary.

In 1899, Sarajevo hosted the inauguration of the Assembly House (architect K. Parzhik), which combined the functions of a city club and a theater (this building, later adapted to the needs of the stage, now houses the National Theater). The invited troupe of the Croatian National Theater from Zagreb performed F. Grilparzer's play Medea. The prologue to the performance was the performance of the ode "To the Muse of Enlightenment" by the Croatian poet S. S. Kranchevich, who lived in Sarajevo.

In August 1919, the Ministry of Education of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, on the proposal of the National Government of Bosnia and Herzegovina, decided to establish the National Theater (Narodno pozorište) in Sarajevo. The official opening took place in October 1921, a welcoming speech was delivered by the Serbian playwright B. Nusic, whose play "Protection" opened the first season. By tradition, the troupe consisted of actors of different nationalities: Bosnian Muslims, Serbs, Croats and Sephardic Jews. Theatrical figures from neighboring regions of Yugoslavia, as well as directors and actors from among Russian immigrants, took an active part in cultural life. The first professional director and artistic director of the Sarajevo stage was A. A. Vereshchagin (he worked in Russia with V. E. Meyerhold, in the theater "False mirror" and the Ancient Theater of N. N. Evreinov). In the 1921/22 season, he staged performances of The Imaginary Sick and The Tricks of Scapin by Moliere, The Inspector General by N. V. Gogol, The Living Corpse by L. N. Tolstoy, Oedipus Rex by Sophocles. The repertoire of the National Theater also included a staging of "Ward No. 6" by A.P. Chekhov, "At the Bottom" by M. Gorky and other Russian plays. Vereshchagin himself, his wife, actress A. Leskova, and later Sarajevo actors D. Radenkovich, V. Starchich, V. Africh, well-known in Yugoslavia, played in them. In the mid 1920s. a new impetus to the development of theatrical life was given by the work of the actor and director V. Beck, who was educated in Vienna; among his most striking productions are W. Shakespeare's Hamlet (Beck played the title role) and a staging of Leo Tolstoy's Anna Karenina staged by Russian director A. D. Sibiryakov with actress L. V. Mansvetova in the role of Anna. In 1924–27, the National Theater was directed by Nusic, who sought to instill in the public, who sometimes preferred sentimental scenes from folk life and French salon plays, a taste for the European classical repertoire and for modern national dramaturgy: for the dramas of I. Voinovich, his own satirical comedies, and the works of I. Palavestra and I. Samokovlia. Interest in the achievements of the psychological theater was aroused by the tour of the Prague group of artists of the Moscow Art Theater in the 1920s. The Slovenian actor and director R. Pregarc made a great contribution to shaping the image of the National Theatre. In 1930-36, he staged several plays by Shakespeare, F. Schiller's "Deceit and Love", P. Beaumarchais's "The Marriage of Figaro", L. Pirandello's "In the Agony" and M. Krlezhi's "Lord Glembai" . With the support of immigrants from Russia - directors and teachers V. M. Grech, P. A. Pavlov, L. V. Mansvetova, A. D. Sibiryakov, actors of the younger generation fought for the renewal of the Sarajevo stage: J. Dacic, O. Babich, S Ilic, S. Tanich, A. Cvetkovich and others. The achievements of the 1939/40 season at the National Theater were the performances of Shakespeare's "Julius Caesar", "Crime and Punishment" by F. M. Dostoevsky and "Pygmalion" by B. Shaw. The theater was also opened in Banja Luka (1930).

During World War II, the National Theater in Sarajevo was renamed the Croatian State Theatre. The repertoire consisted mainly of plays by Croatian, Bosnian-Muslim and German playwrights. An event was the staging of Shakespeare's Hamlet by the outstanding Croatian director B. Gavella (1942). After 1945, the historical name was returned to the National Theater. From Ser. 1960s Experimental stage works here.

In 1950, the Maly Theater was opened in Sarajevo [now "Chamber Theater 55" ("Kamerni teatar 55")]. Theaters arose in the cities of Mostar, Tuzla (both 1949), and Zenica (1950). First post-war years passed, as in all theaters of Yugoslavia, under the sign of the influence of Soviet dramaturgy and theory "socialist realism". The performance of the National Theater based on the comedy "Razdel" by S. Kulenovich (1948), which, in the best traditions of satire, scourged the recent partisans, and now people's deputies, who are not averse to profiting at the expense of the workers, was out of this series, was banned with a scandal. Followed from the 2nd half of the 1950s. the period of liberalization of the cultural life of the SFRY was marked by the renewal of the repertoire, attempts to master modern American drama, the plays of French existentialists, the drama of the absurd, as well as the works of new domestic authors of different nationalities. The modernization of theatrical life was facilitated by numerous tours in Sarajevo of theaters from the neighboring republics of Yugoslavia and foreign countries (the National Folk Theater of J. Vilard, France; the Moscow Art Theater, Milan "Piccolo Theatre" and etc.). In the 1960s–1980s The attention of the audience and critics was attracted by the performances of the National Theater "House Washed with Tears" by R. Colakovich and "Funeral in Theresienburg" by M. Krlezhi (director M. Belovich), "Madness" by F. K. Kretz and "The Brothers Karamazov" by F. M. Dostoevsky (director S. Kupusovich), "Shopalovich's Wandering Troupe" by L. Simovich (director J. Leshich), "Dead Souls" based on N. V. Gogol (director D. Miyach). Directors O. Milicevic, B. Hanauska, B. Gligorovic, B. Drašković, V. Jablan worked on classic and modern texts by M. Jančić, S. Pasalic, C. Siyaric, A. Isaković, S. Plakal, J. Karahasan, H. Pasovich and others. The new dramaturgy was distinguished by a combination of searches in the field of everyday and psychological drama, political satire, historical tragedy and parahistorical reconstruction of famous events (for example, the play “Principle G.” by D. Andzic, dedicated to a student whose shot was the reason for the beginning World War I). The acting works of R. Demirdzic, N. Dzhyurevskaya, J. Pejakovich, I. Bajrovich, D. Chavic, S. Pashalic, A. Cheyvan, M. Danira, A. Begovic, S. Mijatovic, A. Pavlovich, S. Sadikovich stood out and etc.

In the beginning. In the 1990s, with the collapse of Yugoslavia and the beginning of a military conflict, the artists of several theaters in Sarajevo united in the troupe of the Sarajevo Military Theater (SARTR - Sarajevski ratni teatar) led by the playwright and actor S. Plakalo: over 4 years of the blockade, more than 2000 performances took place. Since 1997 SARTR has become one of the theaters of the canton of Sarajevo.

The troupe of the National Theater staged the performances "The Fortress" based on the novel by M. Selimovich, "The Sarajevo Triangle » Sh. Chegich, "Khasanaginitsa" by A. Isakovich, "Ajax" by Sophocles, "Quartet" by H. Muller and others. Since the building of the National Theater was too noticeable a target for shelling, the performances were held mainly in the premises of the "Chamber Theater 55". The play “Waiting for Godot” by S. Beckett, staged by the famous American writer and public figure S. Sontag, caused a wide public outcry in solidarity with the actors and the public of the besieged city. The square in front of the National Theater is now named after S. Sontag.

In the repertoire of the drama troupe of the National Theater in the 2000s - 2010s. - A. Basovich's play "Visions of the Age of Srebrenica", dedicated to the tragedy of this Bosnian city, dramas by M. Krlezha, B. Nusic, G. Stefanovsky, plays by R. Colakovich, S. Kulenovic, performances based on the works of local, as well as Serbian, Croatian, Macedonian satirists, classics of world literature: “The Balkan Spy in Sarajevo” by D. Kovacevic (2012, director S. Kupusovich), “Tartuffe” by Molière (2013, director N. Hamzagic), “On the Edge of the Universe” by D. Komadin, A. Lugonich , D. Bevanda, N. Lindova and A. Pilava (2013, director M. Misiracha), “Wild Meat” by G. Stefanovsky (2015, director D. Mustafich), “Elizaveta Bam” by D. I. Kharms (2016, director A. Kurt) and others. The poster of the National Theater also includes operas (“Eugene Onegin” by P. I. Tchaikovsky, 2012; “Ero from the Other World” by J. Gotovets, 2014; “The Maid-Mistress” by G. B. Pergolesi, 2015 ; "Don Giovanni" by W. A. ​​Mozart, 2016) and ballets ("Romeo and Juliet" by S. S. Prokofiev, 2011; "Mare Nostrum" to group music, 2012; "Pulcinella" by I. F. Stravinsky and "Giselle » A. Adana, both 2014 ; "Don Quixote" by L. F. Minkus, 2016). Among the actors: E. Bavcic, E. Muftic, H. Boric, A. Kapidzic, S. Pepelyak, V. Seksan, M. Lepic, R. Liutovich, A. Omerovic, A. Seksan, V. Dekic, S. Vidak , E. Shiyami. The repertoire of the "Chamber Theater 55" is dominated by modern Western European dramaturgy. The renewed troupe of the SARTR theater, along with stationary ones, organizes traveling performances; in the repertoire: "1984" (2012) and "Animal Farm" (2015) by J. Orwell, "Another Letter Through the Red Cross" by S. Krsmanovich and E. Selman (2014), "A Streetcar Named Desire" by T. Williams (2015 ), "The Little Mermaid" by H. K. Andersen and "State of Shock" by S. Shepard (both 2016), etc.

Sarajevo annually hosts the International Theater Festival MESS (founded in 1960 on the initiative of the playwright and theatrical figure Y. Korenich), since 2016 - the festival "Days of Yurislav Korenich". The theater program is presented as part of the annual Sarajevo Winter International Arts Festival (founded in 1984/85). In the city of Banja Luka, there is the National Theater (People's Pozorishte Republikke Srpske), the City Theater "Jazavac" (Gradsko Pozorishte Jazavac, 2006; named after the badger - the hero of the satirical comedy of the classic of Serbian Bosnian literature P. Kochich): the annual festival "Petar Kochich. Since 1961, the Museum of Literature and Theatrical Art of B. and G. (Muzej književnosti i pozorišne umjetnosti Bosne i Hercegovine) has been operating in Sarajevo.

Since 2010, the theater magazine Agon has been published in Banja Luka. Since 2016, the publication of the theater magazine “Pozorište” (“Pozorishte”; "Theater"), until the 1990s. published in the city of Tuzla. Leading theater critics and theater historians: J. Lesic, V. Ubavich, N. Novakovic, N. Glisic, D. Lukich, M. Radonich, T. Sarajlich-Slavnic.

Movie

The first screening in Sarajevo took place in 1897 (demonstration of films by the brothers L. and O. Lumiere). The earliest surviving film footage of Bosnia and Sarajevo was filmed in 1912 under the title A Tour of Bosnia by the London-based Charles Urban Studios. ). The pioneer of B. and G. cinema was A. Valich, who managed the Apollo and Imperial cinemas in Sarajevo. In 1913–14 he made 5 films, including those about the assassination of the Austrian Archduke Franz Ferdinand and the demonstrations that followed. The first feature films were the short "On the Border" (directed by B. Kosanovich) and the full-length "Major Ghost" (directed by N. Popovich; both 1951). Well-known writers (B. Chopich, M. Selimovich, I. Samokovlia, M. Kovacs, A. Sidran) often acted as screenwriters. Most of the films were made by the Bosna-film company ( Bosna Film; many were joint productions with other Yugoslav republics or foreign partners). Founded in the 1960s enterprises "Sutjeska-film" ( Sutjeska Film ), which specialized in the production of documentaries and short films, led to the flowering of these genres. T. n. Sarajevo School of Documentary Film has given cinematography Bosnia and Herzegovina directors such as H. Krvavac, D. Tanovich, J. Ristic, M. Mutapchich, G. Shipovac, T. Janich, P. Majhrovski, B. Chengich, B. Filipovich. Along with them, a significant role in the formation of original cinemaBosnia and Herzegovina, which received worldwide recognition, was played by I. Matic, N. Stojanovic and M. Idrizovic, who came from amateur cinema, as well as theater figures B. Drašković and J. Lešić. In 1981, the Academy of Performing Arts in Sarajevo was founded with the only department of acting at that time (in 1989 the department of directing was opened, in 1994 - dramaturgy). Among the most significant films, the shooting of which was carried out in whole or in part in Bosnia and Herzegovina: “Khanka” by S. Vorkapich (1955), “Shepherdess” (1962) and “The Battle of the Neretva” (1969) by V. Bulaich, “Little Soldiers” (1967) and “The Role of My Family in the World Revolution” (1971) B Chengich, "The Smell of Quince" by M. Idrizovich (1982), "Woman and Landscape" by I. Matic (1975, released in 1989), "Here's a Little Bit of Soul" by A. Kenovich (1987), "Donkey Years" N. Dizdarevich (1994). At the studio "Bosna-film" E. Kusturica (“Do You Remember Dolly Bell?”, 1981; “Dad on a Business Trip,” 1985; “Hanging House,” 1988), but with the outbreak of hostilities for political reasons, he left Sarajevo and continued to work in Belgrade. The military conflict had a negative impact on the development of cinema. However, since 1995, the International Film Festival has been held in Sarajevo, and the post-war upswing has made cinematography Bosnia and Herzegovina one of the most notable in Southeastern Europe at the turn of the 20th–21st centuries. The first post-war feature film was "Perfect Circle" by A. Kenovich (1997), and the film "No Man's Land" by D. Tanovic (2001, together with Italy, Slovenia, France, Great Britain, Belgium, "Oscar" award, prize of the International Cannes Film Festival and many others). Among the films of the 2000-2010s: "10 minutes" (2002, recognized as the best European short film of the year), "To the West" (2005) and "Belvedere" (2010) by A. Imamovich, "Summer in the Golden Valley" ( 2003) and "It's hard to be good" (2007) by S. Vuletic, "Remake" by D. Mustafich (2003), "Bickford cord" (2003) and "Days and hours" (2004) by P. Zhalitsa, "Yasmina" by N. Begovic (2010), “Snow” (2008) and “Children of Sarajevo” (2012) A. Begich, “The Way of Halima” by A. A. Ostoich (2012), “With Mom” by F. Lonkarevich, “Those who cannot lie” Y. Zhbanich (both 2013).

Bosnian(self-name bosanski / Bosanski / بۉسانسكى) is one of the South Slavic languages ​​spoken mainly in Bosnia and Herzegovina by about 2.2 million people. Officially, the Bosnian language began to emerge as a separate language after the collapse of Yugoslavia in the 1990s. Bosnian became one of the official languages ​​of Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1994, along with Croatian and Serbian.

Bosnian uses both the Cyrillic and Latin alphabets. In the past, Bosnian was written using a version of the Cyrillic alphabet known as the Bosnian Cyrillic alphabet from the late 10th century. This alphabet was used only in Bosnia. During the period of the Ottoman Empire, a version of the Arabic alphabet was used to write the Bosnian language.

The first Bosnian dictionary, a Bosnian-Turkish rhyming dictionary, was compiled by Mohammed Khevayi Uskufi in 1631.

Bosnian is closely related and mutually intelligible to Serbian, Croatian and Montenegrin.

This table shows the Bosnian Cyrillic alphabet, which was used during the period of the 10th-20th centuries. It never went through standardization, and most of the letters had several different forms - typical forms are indicated in the table. Some letters used in modern Bosnian Cyrillic were not used in this version. At the same time, there are letters here that are no longer used at all.

Arabic alphabet for the Bosnian language (Arabica/Alhamijado/Adzamijski)

Latin and Cyrillic alphabets for the Bosnian language

- Sanjaka. As an independent language, Bosnian stood out in 1990 after the collapse of the state of Yugoslavia. In 1994, it became one of the official languages ​​of Bosnia and Herzegovina, along with Serbian and Croatian. Currently, Cyrillic and Latin alphabets are used in writing in parallel, with the latter predominating.

In total, approximately 2.5 million people speak the Bosnian language, 1.8 million of them live in Bosnia and Herzegovina, another 245 thousand are citizens of Serbia, and more than three hundred thousand Bosnians immigrated to the countries of Europe and North America.

History of the Bosnian language

During the years of the existence of the SFRY, the Bosnian and Montenegrin languages ​​were considered dialects of the common Serbo-Croatian language. The basis of all the listed languages ​​is the Shtokavian dialect, so the languages ​​are very similar. After the division of Yugoslavia into independent states, the peoples inhabiting these lands began to restore the traditional national languages. The Bosnian language is currently one of the new languages, the formation of which has just begun. At this stage of language development, borrowed words are introduced, pronunciation is standardized.

The origin of the Bosnian language is attributed to the Middle Ages. The self-name of the speakers of the Bosnian language is Bosniaks, the language is accordingly called bosniak. Bosniaks profess Islam, therefore the Bosnian language differs from Croatian and Serbian in numerous lexemes, and is of Turkic origin. The tradition of such an entry was fixed at a time when the Ottoman Empire dominated the Balkans.

Traces of the Ottoman presence are clearly reflected not only in the Bosnian language, but also in the architecture and traditions of the Bosnians. Sarajevo - the capital of Bosnia and Herzegovina - is decorated with ancient minarets and mosques. The ancient city, founded in the 13th century, was originally called Vrhbosna. The city got its current name in the 15th century and comes from the Turkic “barn”, which translates as “palace”. The Turks built a governor's palace in the captured city, and thanks to this, the city received a new name.

In the XVIII century, after the end of the Austro-Turkish war, Bosnia went to the Austrians, but by this time the vast majority of the local population had already converted to Islam. Nevertheless, in Orthodox monasteries during all the years of the rule of the Turks, they continued to copy books written in the ancient Serbian language, created chronicles and thus preserved the traditions of Christian literature using the Cyrillic alphabet. The first Muslim Bosnian writers appeared only in the 17th century.

• The culture of the peoples of the Balkan Peninsula is very specific, which is explained by many external influences. Bosnian grammar is simpler than Russian, vocabulary is much poorer, but the words of the Bosnian language are often ambiguous.
• The oral language of Bosniaks differs from Croatian and Serbian in greater homogeneity. Efforts made in the nineteenth century to streamline grammar were unsuccessful. The first dictionary of the Bosnian language was the glossary of Muhamed Khevayi Uskufi, compiled in 1631.
• For a long time Bosnians preferred to use foreign languages, basically, or . The Bosnian language can be said to have been abandoned in favor of religious issues, which interested ethnic Bosniaks much more. A short revival of interest, observed at the beginning of the 20th century, allows today to revive the national language.

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Highlights

In recent decades, Bosnia and Herzegovina has been actively developing tourism and now can offer travelers many historical attractions - ancient Christian churches, mosques and medieval castles. In addition, this European state has a luxurious nature. 90% of its territory is made up of picturesque mountains and foothills. And in winter, many fans of skiing come here.

In ancient times, the lands of Bosnia and Herzegovina were inhabited by Celts and Illyrians. In the 1st century AD the territory was controlled by the Roman Empire, and from the VI century. - Byzantium. In subsequent centuries, Serbs settled in the foothill fertile lands. In the XII century, the Bosnian state was formed here. The country received its modern name and constitutional structure in the form of a parliamentary republic after the end of the Balkan War in 1995. Historically, the name "Bosnia and Herzegovina" came about as a result of the merger of two words: the name of the Bosna River and the German title "Duke", which was worn by the voivode Stefan Vuksic Kosacha in the 15th century.

Unfortunately, Bosnia and Herzegovina is facing the 21st century with a host of pressing problems. Today it is considered the poorest country in Europe and has a very high unemployment rate. BiH has on its territory the peacekeeping forces of the European Union, operating under the auspices of the UN. They provide a solution to interethnic problems and the removal of political tension, and are also a guarantor of the prevention of ethnic conflicts.

However, these internal problems do not prevent the people of Bosnia and Herzegovina from remaining very cordial and hospitable to everyone who wants to get acquainted with the traditions and culture of the peoples inhabiting it. Most of the guests come here from neighboring countries, Germany and Turkey. The flow of tourists from Russia and the CIS countries is not yet large, but it is growing every year.

Traveling in Bosnia and Herzegovina is absolutely safe. For Russians, this country provides a 30-day visa-free entry. The road here does not take much time, and in the major tourist centers of Bosnia and Herzegovina and in its ski resorts you can meet enough high level service. Low prices, natural attractions, excellent cuisine and interesting architectural monuments make a trip to one of the most beautiful countries in Southeast Europe very attractive.

Climate

Bosnia and Herzegovina is located in the temperate continental climate zone. And for its south and southwest, a subtropical Mediterranean climate is characteristic. The summer months here are not too hot. In the middle of summer the air temperature does not rise above +27ºС. It is always warmer in the flat areas, and in the mountains in summer the temperature ranges from +10ºС to +21ºС.

Winters in this country are also quite mild. Frosts below -10ºС are very rare here, and usually the temperature ranges from 0ºС to +5ºС. In the mountainous part of Bosnia and Herzegovina, a stable snow cover lasts for several months - from November to April, that is, the ski season in this country is quite long. True, the ideal conditions for skiing, as a rule, begin in December and end at the end of February. In these few months, the most fans of skiing come to Bosnia and Herzegovina.

Precipitation falls mainly in summer and early winter - from November to December. Moreover, on the eastern slopes of the mountains, annual precipitation is almost 4 times less than on the western ones. The mountainous nature of the terrain also determines other climatic features of Bosnia and Herzegovina. There are many microclimatic zones here, where the nature of the weather changes very quickly within one day.

Tourist Opportunities

After the Balkan War, the tourism infrastructure in the country is developing quite rapidly. Every year more and more travelers come to Bosnia and Herzegovina who want to get acquainted with this "chamber" original state of Europe.

Experts from the World Tourism Organization believe that Bosnia and Herzegovina will become one of the world leaders in terms of the growth rate of the tourism industry in the next few years. In popular guidebooks, Lonely Planet is mentioned as one of the most attractive tourist centers in Europe, where many cultural, historical and religious monuments are concentrated that are interesting for travelers from any country.

Ski resorts

AT last years Bosnia and Herzegovina is trying to regain its glory as a prestigious ski center and is actively developing the infrastructure of winter resorts. The largest ski resorts exist nearby. There are four of them, and all of them were Olympic venues in 1984. All ski centers in Bosnia and Herzegovina are distinguished by easy access, affordable prices for ski passes and equipment rental, good hotels and excellent inexpensive local cuisine.

30 km from the capital of the country, on the slopes of the mountain of the same name, the sports center of Jahorina is located. The trails here have a length of 20 km and are equipped with four chair lifts. Some of the trails are illuminated at night. In addition to skiing, people come here to go skiing, snowboarding and sledding. Guests of this resort do not have to worry - there are hotels and apartments for every taste near the slopes.

The ski center Belashnitsa is a little closer to (25 km). The elevation difference on its slopes is quite large - about 860 m. There are slopes for night skiing and a variety of lifts. The slopes of this resort are more suitable for intermediate skiers. During the summer months, paragliding and hiking enthusiasts master the local slopes.

The Vlašić Ski Center was built at an altitude of 1260 m and is located 120 m from the country's capital. Although this resort is considered one of the southernmost in Europe, the snow cover here lasts up to five months a year. Most of the slopes of this resort are designed for beginners and children. The slopes are served by 4 lifts. In addition, there is an illuminated skating rink in Vlašić.

Kupres, located in the Croatian part of the country, is used as a sports center both in winter and in summer. This ski resort is often referred to as Adria-ski and is actively developing. Today, 4 slopes are waiting for ski lovers, the length of the slopes on which is 14 km.

What to see in Bosnia and Herzegovina

Despite the small size of the country, Bosnia and Herzegovina has many historical monuments and interesting natural sites that attract many tourists from different places. This European state is home to two UNESCO World Heritage Sites - the old bridge in the historic center of Mostar and the Mehmed Pasha Bridge in Visegrad. Both of these unique stone bridges were built in the middle of the 16th century.

In Bosnia and Herzegovina, many stone medieval castles and ancient fortresses built in the 12th-18th centuries have been preserved. They served for defensive purposes and as residences for local kings and nobles. The best-preserved monuments of the Middle Ages are located in (Biela Tabia), Vares (Bobovac), Bihac (Captain's Citadel), Doboje (Doboj Fortress), Gradačac (Gradačac Castle), Jajce (Jajce Castle), Banja Luka (Kastel Castle), Cazine (Ostrožac), Livno (citadels of Smailagic and Vujadina), Tesani (Tešanj Castle) and Travnik (Travnik Castle).

Taxis can only be used in major cities. But it should be noted that not all cars have meters, so it is better to agree on the cost of the trip in advance.

It is convenient to travel by buses, trolleybuses and trams. One trip costs about 2 YOU. And to save money, you need to purchase a one-day pass, which costs 5 YOU.

Security

As in all Slavic countries, in Bosnia and Geozegovina, tourists from Russia are treated kindly. locals always friendly and helpful. The crime rate is not high here. However, when traveling through the Old Town in, tourists need to be wary of pickpockets.

In addition, it is always necessary to take into account that both Christians and Muslims live in the country. The three main communities - Bosniaks (adherents of Islam), Croats and Serbs continue to live separately, so it is better not to touch on controversial political and religious issues in conversations. For example, you should not discuss the problems of the recent Balkan war with strangers or openly demonstrate your political sympathies for anyone. You also need to be careful when buying souvenirs of a “political” theme.

no, therefore, to get to the city, you need to take a taxi or rent a car.

A taxi ride from the airport to the Sarajevo bus station will cost 5-6 euros. There is another, cheaper, but rather time-consuming option. You can walk to a public transport stop, take a tram and take it to the city. A tram ticket will cost 1.8 VAM.

The bus and train stations are nearby. And it is easy to find them by a noticeable landmark - a high, “twisted” tower is clearly visible from many places in the city.