Nobel Prize 1921. The scientist who opened the door to new physics with three blows

Russian nuclear physicist, public figure, human rights activist. Andrei Dmitrievich Sakharov was born on May 21, 1921 in Moscow, in the family of a physics teacher. “Andrei Sakharov’s grandfather, Ivan Nikolaevich Sakharov (he was the tenth child in the family and the only one who received a higher education), was a famous Moscow lawyer, a member of the Committee of the Society for Assistance to Needy Students of Moscow University, a member of the Moscow Literacy Society, the Commission on the Introduction of Universal Education in Russia, secretary Commission for the organization of rural libraries. Andrei Sakharov's great-grandfather, Nikolai Ivanovich Sakharov, was a priest in Arzamas and an honorary citizen of Nizhny Novgorod. His ancestors were also priests for two more generations. (“D.I. Sakharov. 1889–1961. Biobibliographic index”)

Andrei Sakharov's father, Dmitry Ivanovich Sakharov (1889–1961; was the fourth child; there were a total of six children in the family), was a famous physics teacher, author of textbooks and popular science books. In 1907 he graduated with a silver medal from one of the best gymnasiums in Moscow and entered the medical faculty of Moscow University, but in 1908 he transferred to the mathematical department of the Faculty of Physics and Mathematics, specializing in physical geography. In March 1911, Dmitry Ivanovich Sakharov was expelled from the university for participating in student gatherings, but in May he was reinstated and in the spring of 1912 he graduated with a first-degree diploma. In the same year he entered the Pedagogical Institute. Shelaputin, founded in 1911 at the expense of the industrialist and famous philanthropist Pavel Grigorievich Shelaputin specifically for preparing university graduates for teaching activities. In 1914 he completed his studies, and after the outbreak of the First World War he went to serve in the army as a medical orderly (until August 1915). He began teaching in 1912 at the women's gymnasium E.N. Dyulu: he taught mathematics. He began teaching physics in 1917 at the P.N. Popova gymnasium, and in 1921 at the Communist University. Y.M.Sverdlova (until 1931). In 1925, D.I. Sakharov’s first book (“The Fight for Light. How lighting technology developed and what it achieved”) was published. During the Great Patriotic War, remaining in Moscow, he taught at Moscow State Pedagogical Institute. In 1942, Dmitry Ivanovich Sakharov was awarded the academic degree of Candidate of Pedagogical Sciences in the specialty “physics” (dissertation topic “Collection of problems in physics for pedagogical institutes”). In 1956, the Higher Attestation Commission of the Ministry of Higher Education of the USSR supported the collective petition of the teachers of the Moscow State Pedagogical Institute and the Academic Council of the Moscow State Pedagogical Institute to award an associate professor, candidate. ped. Sciences D.I. Sakharov’s degree of Doctor of Pedagogical Sciences “without defending a dissertation, based on the totality of his scientific and methodological works, which had a significant impact on the development of Soviet physics methods.” “Dad made me a physicist, otherwise God knows where I would have ended up!” – Andrei Dmitrievich did not write these words, but repeated them several times. After the death of Dmitry Ivanovich, both of his sons, Andrei and Georgy, who extremely loved and respected their father, tried to continue his work. During the years when the name of the disgraced Andrei Sakharov was hushed up or denigrated in every possible way, the name of his father began to fall into oblivion. Books by D.I. Sakharov was no longer republished; his name was not mentioned in connection with the consideration of the history of Russian methods of teaching physics. A man of high culture, Dmitry Ivanovich Sakharov was not a narrow specialist for whom there was only one physics. He knew literature and art well, and especially deeply loved music. Possessing absolute pitch, after studying for some time at the Musical Pedagogical School named after E. and M. Gnesin, he did not become a professional musician, but played a lot and willingly “for himself”, for friends; during the Civil War, he made a living playing in silent films. Favorite composers were Beethoven, Bach, Mozart, Chopin, Grieg, Scriabin.” (“D.I. Sakharov. 1889–1961. Biobibliographic index”)

Andrei Sakharov’s mother is Ekaterina Alekseevna (before Sofiano’s marriage). She received her education at the Noble Institute in Moscow, a privileged educational institution that provided more training than education. After graduating, she taught gymnastics for several years at one of the educational institutions in Moscow. Andrei Sakharov's maternal grandfather, Alexei Semenovich Sofiano, was a professional military man and artilleryman. After the Japanese War he retired with the rank of major general. Among his ancestors were Russified Greeks.

Childhood of Andrei Sakharov “It took place in a large communal apartment, where, however, most of the rooms were occupied by the families of our relatives and only a part by strangers. The traditional spirit of a large strong family was preserved in the house - constant active diligence and respect for work skills, mutual family support, love of literature and science. For me, the influence of family was especially great, since I studied at home for the first part of my school years.” (A.D. Sakharov, “Autobiography”) In 1938, Andrei Sakharov graduated from school with honors and entered the physics department of Moscow University. In 1942, while in evacuation in Ashgabat, he graduated with honors from Moscow State University.

In the summer of 1942 he worked in logging in a remote rural area near Melekess. In September 1942 he was sent to a large military plant in Ulyanovsk, where he worked as an engineer-inventor until 1945, becoming the author of a number of inventions in the field of product control. In 1945, Andrei Dmitrievich Sakharov entered graduate school at the Physics Institute of the USSR Academy of Sciences. P.N. Lebedeva, defended his dissertation in November 1947, and in 1948 was included in the research group for the development of thermonuclear weapons, led by Igor Evgenievich Tamm. In 1950, together with I.E. Tamm became one of the initiators of work on the study of controlled thermonuclear reactions. In 1953, the first test of the Soviet hydrogen bomb took place, and Andrei Dmitrievich Sakharov was elected academician of the USSR Academy of Sciences.

“In 1953-1968, my socio-political views underwent a great evolution. In particular, already in 1953-1962, participation in the development of thermonuclear weapons, in the preparation and implementation of thermonuclear tests, was accompanied by an increasingly acute awareness of the moral problems generated by this.” (A.D. Sakharov, “Autobiography”) Since the late 50s, Andrei Dmitrievich Sakharov, considered the “father” of the Soviet hydrogen bomb, actively advocated stopping nuclear weapons testing. In 1961, in connection with his speeches for limiting nuclear tests, a conflict arose with Khrushchev, and in 1962 - with the Minister of Medium Engineering Slavsky. HELL. Sakharov was one of the initiators of the 1963 Moscow Treaty banning tests in three environments (in the atmosphere, in water and in space), and in 1967 he participated in the Committee for the Protection of Lake Baikal. Three times A.D. Sakharov was awarded the title of Hero of Socialist Labor in 1954, 1956 and 1962.

A.D. Sakharov’s first appeals in defense of the repressed appeared in 1966-1967, and in 1968 the article “Reflections on progress, peaceful coexistence and intellectual freedom” appeared. “This performance became a turning point in my entire future destiny. In the Soviet press, “Reflections” were kept silent for a long time, then they began to be mentioned very disapprovingly. Many, even sympathetic, critics perceived my thoughts in this work as very naive and projectorial. Since July 1968, after my article “Reflections” was published abroad, I was removed from secret work and “excommunicated” from the privileges of the Soviet “nomenklatura”. Since 1970, the protection of human rights, the protection of people who have become victims of political violence, has come to the fore for me. Since 1972, the pressure on me and my loved ones has been increasing, and repressions have been growing all around.” (A.D. Sakharov, “Autobiography”) In 1970 A.D. Sakharov became one of the founders of the Moscow Committee for Human Rights, spoke out on the problem of environmental pollution, for the abolition of the death penalty, for the right to emigrate, and against the forced treatment of “dissidents” in psychiatric hospitals.

Bonner first met Elena Georgievna in the fall of 1970. “In October 1971, Lyusya and I decided to get married. Lucy had serious doubts. She was afraid that the official registration of our marriage would put her children at risk. But I insisted. Regarding her doubts, I believed that maintaining the state of an unregistered marriage was even more dangerous. It’s hard to say which of us was right; there is no “control experiment” in such things. Strikes against Tanya, and then against Alyosha, followed... Official registration at the registry office took place on January 7, 1972.” Andrei Dmitrievich Sakharov called his wife “Lucy, what was her name in childhood and what are all her current friends and relatives calling her” (A.D. Sakharov, “Memoirs”).

In 1975, “for his fearless support of the fundamental principles of peace among nations and for his courageous struggle against abuse of power and any form of suppression of human dignity,” Andrei Dmitrievich Sakharov was awarded the title of Nobel Peace Prize laureate. “This was a great honor for me, recognition of the merits of the entire human rights movement in the USSR.” (A.D. Sakharov, “Autobiography”)

In December 1979, immediately after the entry of Soviet troops into Afghanistan, Sakharov repeatedly condemned the aggression of the USSR; on January 3, he gave an interview in absentia to a correspondent of the German newspaper Die Welt, and on January 4, to a correspondent of the American newspaper The New York Times. Sakharov not only condemned the actions of the USSR government, but also spoke out in support of the boycott of the Moscow Olympics in connection with the invasion of Soviet troops in Afghanistan, saying that “According to the ancient Olympic status, wars cease during the Olympics. I believe that the USSR should withdraw its troops from Afghanistan; this is extremely important for the world, for all humanity. Otherwise, the Olympic Committee must refuse to hold the Olympics in a country at war.” (A.D. Sakharov, “Memoirs”)

On January 8, 1980, a Decree was adopted depriving Andrei Dmitrievich Sakharov of all government awards of the USSR (Order of Lenin, the title of three times Hero of Socialist Labor, laureate of the Lenin and State Prizes) “in connection with Sakharov’s systematic violation of A.D. actions discrediting him as an award recipient, and taking into account numerous proposals from the Soviet public.” Sakharov was informed about this on January 22 and sent to the city of Gorky (since the city was closed to foreigners). “Unfortunately, my colleagues in the USSR, again, just as in the case of Yuri Orlov and many others, did not show themselves in any way (if we don’t talk about those like Academician Fedorov and Academician Blokhin, who made public attacks on me, probably directly following the instructions they received). Meanwhile, I think that an open public speech by several (five, even three) honored, respected academicians would be of great importance, could change not only my fate, but also - which is much more significant - the situation in the country as a whole. At the same time (and this is also important), these people would not be in danger of anything: not only deportation or arrest, but also loss of work, a change in their position in the scientific hierarchy. Maximum (maximum!) – their trips abroad would be limited for some time. And nothing more! Completely incommensurable, enormous possible positive consequences for the entire country, including for science, its authority, for the personal prestige of those who decide to do this, and minimal risk. However, there are no such people in the scientific elite of the USSR today. I don’t know why, but this is a fact, and extremely shameful and sad. Has our intelligentsia really been so shredded since the times of Korolenko and Lebedev?” (A.D. Sakharov, “Memoirs”, 1983) In Gorky he was in conditions of almost complete isolation and under round-the-clock police surveillance. To protest against the illegal actions of the authorities towards his family, Sakharov went on hunger strike twice - in 1984 and 1985.

In December 1986, by order of M.S. Gorbachev, Andrei Dmitrievich Sakharov was returned to Moscow. In the last years of his life, Sakharov was actively involved in human rights activities. In March 1989, Sakharov was elected people's deputy of the USSR from the Academy of Sciences, becoming one of the leaders of the group of the most radical deputies. Andrei Dmitrievich Sakharov died on December 14, 1989 in Moscow.

Among the works of Andrey Dmitrievich Sakharov are works on the physics of elementary particles, magnetic hydrodynamics, plasma physics, controlled thermonuclear fusion, elementary particles, astrophysics,

Sources of information:

HELL. Sakharov, “Memoirs”.
HELL. Sakharov, “Autobiography” (Current topics on the RDP “Yabloko” server - yabloko.ru/Themes/History/sakharov_biography.html)
“Dmitry Ivanovich Sakharov (1889-1961). Biobibliographic index". Andrei Sakharov Foundation; Comp. E.N. Savelyeva; Ed.: E.G. Bonner, B.H. Koval. Moscow. Ed. “Human Rights”, 2003 (Museum and public center “Peace, Progress, Human Rights” named after Andrei Sakharov - sakharov-center.ru)
“Chronicle of the life, scientific and social activities of Andrei Dmitrievich Sakharov (1921-1989). In 3 hours. Andrei Sakharov Foundation; Comp.: E.G. Bonner, B.H. Koval, G.Yu. Averbukh. M.: Publishing house. “Human Rights”, 2002 (Museum and public center “Peace, Progress, Human Rights” named after Andrei Sakharov - sakharov-center.ru)
Encyclopedic resource rubricon.com (Encyclopedia of Russian-American relations, Encyclopedia "Moscow", World Biographical Encyclopedic Dictionary, Russian Encyclopedic Dictionary, Encyclopedic Dictionary "History of the Fatherland", Great Soviet Encyclopedia, Illustrated Encyclopedic Dictionary)
Project “Russia Congratulates!”

In the history of world science it is difficult to find a scientist of the same caliber as Albert Einstein. However, his path to fame and universal recognition was not easy. Suffice it to say that Albert Einstein received the Nobel Prize only after he had been unsuccessfully nominated for it more than 10 times.

Brief biographical information

Albert Einstein was born on March 14, 1879 in the German city of Ulm into a middle-class Jewish family. His father was first involved in the production of mattresses, and after moving to Munich he opened a company that sold electrical equipment.

At the age of 7, Albert was sent to a Catholic school, and then to a gymnasium, which today bears the name of the great scientist. According to the recollections of classmates and teachers, he did not show much zeal for study and had high grades only in mathematics and Latin. In 1896, Einstein entered the Faculty of Education at the Zurich Polytechnic on his second attempt, as he later wanted to work as a physics teacher. There he devoted a lot of time to studying Maxwell's electromagnetic theory. Although it was already impossible not to notice Einstein’s outstanding abilities, by the time he received his diploma, none of the teachers wanted to see him as their assistant. Subsequently, the scientist noted that at the Zurich Polytechnic he was obstructed and bullied for his independent character.

The beginning of the path to world fame

After graduating from university, Albert Einstein could not find a job for a long time and even went hungry. However, it was during this period that he wrote and published his first work.

In 1902, the future great scientist began working at the Patent Office. 3 years later, he published 3 articles in the leading German journal “Annals of Physics”, which were subsequently recognized as harbingers of the scientific revolution. In them, he outlined the foundations of the theory of relativity, the fundamental quantum theory, from which Einstein's theory of the photoelectric effect later emerged, and his ideas regarding the statistical description of Brownian motion.

Revolutionary ideas of Einstein

All 3 articles by the scientist, published in 1905 in the Annals of Physics, became the subject of heated discussion among colleagues. The ideas he introduced to the scientific community certainly deserved to earn Albert Einstein a Nobel Prize. However, they were not immediately recognized in academic circles. If some scientists unconditionally supported their colleague, then there was a fairly large group of physicists who, being experimenters, demanded to present the results of empirical research.

Nobel Prize

Shortly before his death, the famous arms magnate wrote a will, according to which all his property was transferred to a special fund. This organization was supposed to select candidates and annually award large cash prizes to those “who have brought the greatest benefit to humanity” by making a significant discovery in the field of physics, chemistry, and physiology or medicine. In addition, prizes were awarded to the creator of the most outstanding work in the field of literature, as well as for contributions to the unity of nations, the reduction of the size of the armed forces and "the promotion of peace congresses."

In his will, Nobel, in a separate clause, demanded that when nominating candidates their nationality should not be taken into account, since he did not want his prize to be politicized.

The first Nobel Prize ceremony took place in 1901. Over the next decade, such outstanding physicists as:

Hendrik Lorenz;
Peter Zeeman;
Antoine Becquerel;
Marie Curie;
John William Strett;
Philip Lenard;
Joseph John Thomson;
Albert Abraham Michelson;
Gabriel Lippman;
Guglielmo Marconi;
Karl Brown.

Albert Einstein and the Nobel Prize: first nomination

The great scientist was first nominated for this award in 1910. Wilhelm Ostwald became his “godfather” in the field of chemistry. Interestingly, 9 years before this event, the latter refused to hire Einstein. In his presentation, he emphasized that the theory of relativity is deeply scientific and physical, and not just philosophical reasoning, as Einstein’s detractors tried to present it. In subsequent years, Ostwald repeatedly defended this point of view, reiterating it over several years.

The Nobel Committee rejected Einstein's candidacy, with the wording that the theory of relativity did not exactly meet any of these criteria. In particular, it was noted that one should wait for its more explicit experimental confirmation.

Be that as it may, in 1910 the prize was awarded to Jan van der Waals for deriving the equation of state of gases and liquids.

Nominations in subsequent years

Over the next 10 years, Albert Einstein was nominated for the Nobel Prize almost every year, with the exception of 1911 and 1915. At the same time, the theory of relativity was always cited as the work that was worthy of such a prestigious award. It was this circumstance that became the reason that even his contemporaries often doubted how many Nobel Prizes Einstein received.

Unfortunately, 3 out of 5 members of the Nobel Committee were from the Swedish University of Uppsala, known for its powerful scientific school, whose representatives achieved great success in improving measuring instruments and experimental technology. They were extremely suspicious of pure theorists. Einstein was not the only “victim” of them. The Nobel Prize was never awarded to the outstanding scientist Henri Poincaré, but Max Planck received it in 1919 after much discussion.

Solar eclipse

As already mentioned, most physicists demanded experimental confirmation of the theory of relativity. However, at that time it was not possible to do this. The sun helped. The fact is that in order to be convinced of the correctness of Einstein’s theory, it was necessary to predict the behavior of an object with a huge mass. The Sun was perfectly suited for these purposes. It was decided to find out the position of the stars during the solar eclipse, which was supposed to occur in November 1919, and compare them with “ordinary” ones. The results were supposed to confirm or refute the presence of space-time distortion, which is a consequence of the theory of relativity.

Expeditions were organized to the island of Princip and to the tropics of Brazil. Measurements taken during the 6 minutes of the eclipse were studied by Eddington. As a result, Newton's classical theory of inert space was defeated and gave way to Einstein's.

Confession

1919 was the year of Einstein's triumph. Even Lorenz, who had previously been skeptical of his ideas, recognized their value. At the same time as Niels Bohr and 6 other scientists who had the right to nominate colleagues for the Nobel Prize, he spoke out in support of Albert Einstein.

However, politics intervened in the matter. Although it was clear to everyone that the most deserved candidate was Einstein, the Nobel Prize in Physics for 1920 was awarded to Charles Edouard Guillaume for his study of anomalies in nickel and steel alloys.

Nevertheless, the debate continued, and it was obvious that the world community would not understand if the scientist was left without a well-deserved reward.

Nobel Prize and Einstein

In 1921, the number of scientists proposing the candidacy of the creator of the theory of relativity reached its apogee. 14 people spoke for Einstein, who officially had the right to nominate candidates. One of the most authoritative members of the Royal Society of Sweden, Eddington, in his letter even compared him with Newton and pointed out that he was superior to all his contemporaries.

However, the Nobel Committee assigned the 1911 medical laureate Alvar Gullstrand to give a talk on the value of the theory of relativity. This scientist, being a professor of ophthalmology at the University of Uppsala, sharply and illiterately criticized Einstein. In particular, he argued that bending a light beam could not be considered a true test of Albert Einstein's theory. He also urged that observations made regarding the orbits of Mercury should not be considered evidence. In addition, he was especially outraged by the fact that the length of the measuring ruler could change depending on whether the observer was moving or not, and at what speed he was doing it.

As a result, the Nobel Prize was not awarded to Einstein in 1921, and it was decided not to award it to anyone.

1922

Theoretical physicist Karl Wilhelm Oseen from the University of Uppsala helped the Nobel Committee save face. He proceeded from the fact that it did not matter at all what Einstein received the Nobel Prize for. In this regard, he proposed to award it “for the discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect.”

Oseen also advised committee members that Einstein should not only be honored during the 22nd ceremony. The Nobel Prize was not awarded in the year preceding 1921, according to uh It became possible to celebrate the merits of two scientists at once. The second laureate was Niels Bohr.

Einstein missed the official Nobel Prize ceremony. He gave his speech later, and it was devoted to the theory of relativity.

Now you know why Einstein received the Nobel Prize. Time has shown the significance of this scientist’s discoveries for world science. Even if Einstein had not been awarded the Nobel Prize, he would still have gone down in the annals of world history as a person who changed humanity’s understanding of space and time.

Albert EINSTEIN , without any doubt, is one of the greatest scientists of the twentieth century. This is probably why there have always been many rumors and myths around his figure, many of which are still popular today, although they do not correspond to reality at all.

I bring to your attention a short note in which an attempt is made to refute a couple of such persistent misconceptions about the personality of the great physicist.

I assure you that I am not going to lure anyone into the deep theoretical jungle in this note, especially since I myself know little about physics (only at the level of a long-forgotten school curriculum). To convince you of this, I will start my post with an anecdote about Einstein (and end it with an anecdote).

An American journalist once interviewed Einstein.
- What is the difference between time and eternity? - she asked.
“Dear child,” Einstein replied good-naturedly, “if I had time to explain this difference to you, an eternity would pass before you would understand it.”

Try asking someone Why Albert Einstein received the Nobel Prize . Most likely they will tell you what kind of creature it is theory of relativity .
In fact, this is not at all the case.

Albert Einstein in 1921
(Einstein was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1921)

Nobel Committee in 1922 awarded Einstein a prize for discovery of the laws of the photoelectric effect (and this confirms the quantum theory of Max Planck).
However, Albert Einstein had previously been nominated for the Nobel Prize three times (and specifically for the theory of relativity) - in 1910, 1911 and 1915. But to the members of the Nobel Committee, Einstein's work seemed so revolutionary that they did not dare to recognize it.

This is best seen in a letter to Einstein from the Secretary of the Swedish Academy of Sciences, Christopher Aurivillius, dated November 10, 1922: “As I have already informed you by telegram, the Royal Academy of Sciences, at its meeting yesterday, decided to award you the Prize in Physics for the past year, thereby recognizing your work in theoretical physics, in particular the discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect, without taking into account your work on the theory of relativity and the theory of gravity, which will be evaluated once they are confirmed in the future."

Among modern schoolchildren with poor grades (those who are ordinary lazy people, but not without intellectual abilities, otherwise they would not even know the name of a physicist) it has long been circulating the story that Einstein did poorly at school and even failed the math exam. Apparently they are trying to justify themselves with this: you see, Einstein was, like me, a poor student, and then became a great scientist! And I can do it, look!

I hasten to disappoint them.

Einstein's grades in both mathematics and physics were beyond praise. Another thing is that he was intolerant of the cane discipline that reigned in the Munich gymnasium (now, by the way, it bears his name). According to Einstein, the teachers of the junior classes reminded him of sergeants in their behavior, and the senior teachers reminded him of lieutenants. The teachers didn’t particularly like him either, because the behavior of the obstinate student called into question the entire orderly education system at the school. It was because of this that he gained a reputation as a bad student, and not at all because of a lack of knowledge or ability to think.

Albert Einstein's certificate from the Swiss school in Aarau in 1879
(grades are given on a 6-point scale). As you can see, in algebra, geometry and physics
The highest scores were given, but only a “C” in French:

In fairness, it should be noted that among the legends about the great scientist there are also stories that, quite possibly, could actually happen to him.

So, they write that one day he opened a book and found in it as a bookmark an unused check for one and a half thousand dollars. This could well have happened, since Einstein was extremely absent-minded in everyday life. They say that he did not even remember his home address - 112 Mercer Street, Princeton, New Jersey.

It is quite possible that the following anecdotal story is true:

Albert Einstein in his youth loved to wear only a tattered jacket.
- How do you dress so casually that people will talk about you? - the neighbors were surprised.
“Why,” Einstein asked, “nobody knows me here anyway.”
Thirty years have passed. Einstein wore the same jacket.
- Why do you dress so casually that people will talk about you? - the new neighbors were already surprised.
- And what? - asked the now famous physicist. - Everyone here already knows me!

Thank you for your attention.
Sergey Vorobiev.

How the great physicist actually studied, why he refused to work at the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences, why they didn’t want to give Einstein the Nobel Prize and how he served science after his death, the site tells in the section “How to get a Nobel Prize.”

Albert Einstein

Nobel Prize in Physics 1921. The formulation of the Nobel Committee: “For services to theoretical physics and especially for the discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect.”

While working on the column “How to get a Nobel Prize,” the author has already encountered a hero about whom no matter how much you write, it will not be enough: even in the 10-15 thousand characters allotted for the article, it will not be possible to fit even just a brief summary of what this person did in physics. But if this can be said about, then what can we say about our today’s hero? Only a complete list of his works will take up the specified volume of text and will not say anything about him as a person and a scientist. But we will still try to tell you something, find some less well-known facts and dispel some myths.

The future “physical revolutionary” was born in southern Germany. His father, Hermann Einstein, owned a company that produced feather beds and mattresses, or rather, feather and down stuffing for them. Mom, Paulina Einstein, née Koch, also came from a wealthy family - her father, Einstein's grandfather Julius Derzbacher, was a famous corn trader.

14 year old Einstein (1893)

Public domain

Einstein began studying at the Ulm Catholic school and, as he later said, until the age of 12 he was a deeply devout child. True, this did not stop him from being interested in the Critique of Pure Reason and playing the violin like a decent Jewish boy.

The family then moved to Munich, then to Pavia, and then finally, in 1895, to Switzerland. An incident happened here: Einstein was going to take the entrance exams to the Zurich Polytechnic, and then, having studied, teach physics. A modest, quiet career... But he did not pass the exams. However, the director of the Polytechnic advised Einstein to simply study for a year at a local school, receive a certificate of the “established standard”, and then go to his educational institution with a light heart. That's what Einstein did. After which I entered.

By the way, since we are talking about the studies and certificate of the future genius, we need to immediately dispel one common myth. From year to year, from decade to decade, the same story is repeated: Einstein studied very poorly at school, was a dumbass, received only twos and threes. This myth is especially popular among sellers of programs “how to make a genius out of your child in two weeks.”

Nevertheless, it is stupid to talk about Einstein’s failure, although it is clear where this myth comes from. Take a look at the certificate that Albert received upon graduating from school in Aarau, Switzerland. The roots of the confusion lie there.

Albert Einstein Certificate

Wikimedia Commons

The fact is that Einstein began his studies in Germany and graduated in Switzerland. But German children at that time were rated on a ten-point scale, and Swiss children on a six-point scale. So one can understand that Einstein was almost an excellent student, but if he had received such a certificate in Germany, then his highest grade in physics and mathematics (6) would have turned into a three in our understanding, and a four in geography would have turned into a “banana”. Not what you should expect from a schoolboy who actually spends all his free time studying Maxwell's electromagnetic theory.

Polytechnic brought Einstein two important things: a diploma and a wife. It was there that he met a student four years older, Mileva Maric, a Serbian who was studying medicine.

Photo of Mileva Maric and Albert Einstein

Public domain

So, in 1900 the Polytechnic graduated. They say that the professors did not like Einstein for his independence (in fact, Einstein himself said this), and until 1902 he could not find any work at all, let alone a scientific one. “He lived from hand to mouth” for the future great physicist was not a metaphor, but the harsh truth of life, which damaged his liver.

However, there are forces on physics. Already in 1901 Annalen der Physik publishes the article "Consequences of the Theory of Capillarity", Einstein's first paper, in which he calculates the forces of attraction between the atoms of liquids.

His father could not help him with money - his enterprise went bankrupt, a new venture with a company selling electrical equipment did not take off, and in 1902 Hermann Einstein died. Albert barely had time to arrive to say goodbye to his father.

But a classmate, Marcel Grossman, helped, who in the same 1902 recommended his friend for the position of third class expert at the Swiss Federal Patent Office. The salary is small, but you can live, and the work is dust-free, leaving time for doing science. In 1904 Annalen der Physik proposed cooperation - for this journal Einstein made annotations of new articles on thermodynamics. Apparently, that’s why, when an almost real scientific miracle happened, the world learned about it from the pages of this publication.

In 1905, an almost unknown physicist published three articles in Annalen der Physik. Zur Elektrodynamik bewegter Körper(“On the electrodynamics of moving bodies”) Über einen die Erzeugung und Verwandlung des Lichts betreffenden heuristischen Gesichtspunkt(On one heuristic point of view concerning the origin and transformation of light) and Über die von der molekularkinetischen Theorie der Wärme geforderte Bewegung von in ruhenden Flüssigkeiten suspendierten Teilchen(On the motion of particles suspended in a fluid at rest, required by the molecular kinetic theory of heat).

The first begins the theory of relativity (still special), the second lays the foundation of quantum theory (and then Einstein will still convince Max Planck himself of the reality of the existence of quanta), the third, in general, is dedicated to Brownian motion, but at the same time it also thoroughly shakes up the whole building statistical physics.

Three powerful blows kicked open the door to new physics and, in fact, to a new consciousness. No wonder the year 1905 went down in the history of science as Annus Mirabilis- “Year of Miracles.” Only after these works Einstein was able to obtain a doctorate in physics. However, right up to 1909 he served in the Patent Office, despite the fact that already in 1906 physicists around the world addressed him in letters as “Herr Professor.”

Einstein gradually gained worldwide fame, especially since experimental confirmation of his theoretical research gradually came. In 1914, he was even invited to work in St. Petersburg, at the Academy of Sciences, but after the sensational Beilis case and the Jewish pogroms, Einstein refused precisely for ideological reasons. Moreover, the physicist, unlike many of our previous heroes, actively opposed the First World War. Maybe this was due to his Swiss citizenship, which he had had since 1901, or maybe it was just his character.

However, it was during the First World War, namely in 1915, that another “miracle” of Einstein appeared - which finally connected the nature of space and time and assigned the role of the material carrier of gravity to this union. Now, a hundred years later, without the general theory of relativity there is nowhere even in practice: for example, without corrections for the effects of general relativity, GPS devices will not work accurately.

The first time Einstein was nominated for a Nobel in physics was back in 1910, for his special theory of relativity. And every year the number of nominations grew and grew until it led to a natural ending.

There was also an interesting story about the Nobel Prize. We need to start with the fact that in 1911, the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, after several unsuccessful nominations in physics, was awarded to a Swedish optics specialist. He was indeed a very good optician and specialist in eye dioptrics, and after the award he became a very respected scientist in Sweden. And a member of the Nobel Committee.

This wonderful man turned out to be a very stubborn, although very friendly person “for his own people.” But if anyone was a “stranger” for Gullstrand... The stern Swedish genius could not stand and did not recognize the new physics and, in particular, Albert Einstein. “Thanks to” Gullstrand, 1921 was the year in which no prize in physics was awarded at all. No, not because they didn’t find a worthy candidate, but because Albert Einstein received so many nominations. Gulstrand threw a fit. He is said to have even yelled, “Einstein should never win the Nobel Prize, even if the rest of the world demands it.” And he convinced the committee not to award the prize to Einstein. Well, not Einstein - no one.

Alvar Gullstrand

Public domain

To be precise, in 1922 two laureates were named, both for 1921 (after all, Einstein, although the great physicist received many nominations already in 1922), and for 1922. And, knowing in advance what would happen, many physicists already began to fear for their reputation. One of Einstein's nominations, from Karl Wilhelm Oseen, saved the matter. Oseen nominated the greatest physicist not for the theory of relativity, like everyone else, but for the discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect. Everyone clung to this “loophole” and, adding to the verdict the phrase “for outstanding achievements in theoretical physics” (read “he’s also a great guy”), they finally pushed through the stubborn Swede.

By the way, Einstein himself exercised his right to nominate Nobel laureates only nine times. He proposed to award the prize to Max Planck (even before he became a laureate), James Frank and Gustav Hertz, Arthur Compton, Werner Heisenberg and Arthur Schrödinger, Otto Stern, Isidor Rabi, Wolfgang Pauli, Walter Bethe and Carl Bosch (the latter chemistry). A unique story: all Einstein nominees received their awards.

The remaining third of a century of Einstein's life was full of both scientific and social activities until his death. And the gradually unfolding persecution in Germany, the forced move to the USA, work on general field theory, a letter to Franklin Delano Roosevelt about the need to actively create atomic weapons - and immediately, after the war, active participation in the founding of the Pugwash movement of scientists for peace, and even refusing the post of President of Israel. A separate book could be written about each of these 33 years.

However, these images, stored in the National Museum of Medicine and Health (NMHM), until relatively recently did not attract the attention of scientists, like the drugs themselves. Einstein's brain remained without research: it was only clear that in general it turned out to be slightly smaller than the average human brain (but within normal limits). However, in 1985, the first study of the sections had already shown that all areas of the brain from which the samples were taken contained an unusually large number of glial cells.

And in 2013, an article was published in the journal Brain, which analyzes the images discovered shortly before. Its main conclusion is the unusually highly developed prefrontal and parietal cortex of the great scientist’s brain. This probably explains his amazing mental abilities, the mathematical and spatial apparatus of his consciousness. This is how Albert Einstein helps “advance” science sixty years after his death.

Albert Einstein was nominated several times for the Nobel Prize in Physics, but members of the Nobel Committee for a long time hesitated to award the prize to the author of such a revolutionary theory as the theory of relativity. In the end, a diplomatic solution was found: the 1921 prize was awarded to Einstein for the theory of the photoelectric effect, that is, for the most indisputable and experimentally tested work; however, the text of the decision contained a neutral addition: "and for other work in the field of theoretical physics".

“As I have already informed you by telegram, the Royal Academy of Sciences, at its meeting yesterday, decided to award you the Prize in Physics for the past year (1921), thereby noting your work in theoretical physics, in particular the discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect, without taking into account your works on the theory of relativity and the theory of gravity, which will be evaluated after their confirmation in the future.”

Naturally, Einstein dedicated his traditional Nobel speech to the theory of relativity.
In September 1905, Albert Einstein published the famous work “On the Electrodynamics of Moving Media,” devoted to the theory describing motion, the laws of mechanics and space-time relations at speeds close to the speed of light. This theory was later called the special theory of relativity.

Many scientists considered the “new physics” too revolutionary. She abolished the ether, absolute space and absolute time, and revised Newtonian mechanics, which had served as the basis of physics for 200 years. Time in the theory of relativity flows differently in different reference systems, inertia and length depend on speed, movement faster than light is impossible - all these unusual consequences were unacceptable to the conservative part of the scientific community.

Einstein himself treated his colleagues’ mistrust with humor; his statement at the French Philosophical Society at the Sorbonne on April 6, 1922 is known: “If the theory of relativity is confirmed, the Germans will say that I am a German, and the French will say that I am a citizen of the world; but if my theory is refuted, the French will declare me a German, and the Germans a Jew.”

In 1915, Einstein created a mathematical model of General Relativity that deals with the curvature of space and time.
The new theory predicted two previously unknown physical effects, fully confirmed by observations, and also accurately and completely explained the secular shift of Mercury's perihelion, which had long puzzled astronomers. After this, the theory of relativity became an almost universally accepted foundation of modern physics. In addition, the general theory of relativity has found practical application in GPS global positioning systems, where coordinate calculations are made with very significant relativistic corrections.

The thesis about the discreteness of electromagnetic radiation put forward by Einstein in 1905 allowed him to explain two mysteries of the photoelectric effect: why the photocurrent did not arise at any frequency of light, but only starting from a certain threshold, and the energy and speed of the emitted electrons depended not on the intensity of the light, but only on its frequencies. Einstein's theory of the photoelectric effect corresponded with experimental data with high accuracy, which was later confirmed by Millikan's experiments (1916). It was for these scientific discoveries that Einstein received the Nobel Prize.