Biological and social factors of human evolution. Factors of anthropogenesis

The doctrine of evolution is the theoretical basis of biology. It studies the causes and mechanisms historical development all living organisms. Human evolution has its own characteristics and factors.

What is anthropology

According to evolutionary theory, man was formed over a long period of time. The processes of its historical development are studied by the science of anthropology.

The emergence of man has its own characteristics. They lie in the fact that the process of formation is influenced by both social and biological factors. The first group includes the ability to work, speech. The biological factor in human evolution is, in particular, the struggle for existence. As well as natural selection and hereditary variability.

Basic provisions of evolutionary theory

According to Charles Darwin's theory, environmental conditions can cause changes in the structure of living organisms. If they are not inherited, then their role in the process of evolution is insignificant. In some individuals, changes occur in the germ cells. In this case, the trait is inherited. If it proves useful under certain conditions, then the organisms have a better chance of survival. They adapt successfully and produce fertile offspring.

Struggle for existence

The main biological factor in human evolution is its essence in the emergence of competition between organisms. The reason for its appearance is the discrepancy between the ability different types for food and reproduction. As a result, the species that was able to best adapt to specific conditions survives.

Despite the fact that the process of emergence modern man obeyed general laws, there are also a number of differences. Natural selection occurred not only for strength, agility and endurance. In addition to these physical characteristics, the level of mental development also played a special role. Individuals who learned to make and use the most primitive tools, communicate with fellow tribe members, and act together had a greater chance of survival.

Natural selection

During the struggle for existence, natural selection occurs - biological process, during which adapted individuals survive and actively reproduce. Those who fail to adapt die.

Thus, natural selection is also a biological factor in human evolution. Its peculiarity was that individuals with pronounced social traits survived. The most viable people turned out to be those who invented new tools, acquired new skills and socialized. Over time, the importance of natural selection in the process of anthropogenesis decreased. This is due to the fact that ancient people gradually learned to build, improve and heat homes, make clothes, grow plants, and domesticate animals. As a result, the importance of natural selection gradually decreased.

Hereditary variability

Hereditary variability is also a biological factor in human evolution. This property of living organisms lies in the ability to acquire new characteristics in the process of their development and pass them on by inheritance. Naturally, only useful traits had evolutionary significance in the process of anthropogenesis.

Humans are drawn closer to mammals whole line similar biological traits. This is the presence of mammary and sweat glands, hair, and viviparity. The body cavity is divided by a muscular septum, the diaphragm, into thoracic and abdominal parts. Similar signs are the absence of nuclei in red blood cells, erythrocytes, the presence of alveoli in the lungs, the general plan of the structure of the skeleton, differentiated teeth. Both humans and animals have rudimentary (underdeveloped) organs. These include the appendix, the third eyelid, the rudiments of the second row of teeth and others. Scientists know cases of people being born with the characteristic features of animals - a developed tail, continuous hair, an additional number of nipples. This provides additional evidence from animals. But in the process of anthropogenesis, only the most useful features were preserved.

The following biological traits are specific only to humans:

Upright walking;

Enlargement of the brain and reduction of the facial part of the skull;

Arched foot with strongly developed big toe;

Movable hand, thumb opposed to the rest;

Increase in brain volume, development of its cortex.

Human biological evolution is closely related to social evolution. For example, the ability to make fire and cook food led to a decrease in the size of teeth and the length of the intestines.

Biological factors of human evolution are a necessary condition for the formation of social ones, which together led to the appearance of Homo sapiens on Earth.

Human evolution began more than 10 million years ago and continues to this day. For formation modern look human beings were influenced by social and biological factors of anthropogenesis.

Factors

Man is a biological species that emerged from the biosphere and created an artificial environment called the noosphere. That's why Human development depends on two factors:

• biological - natural and identical for all types of living beings;
• social - conditioned by society, norms of behavior, labor, culture.

Initially, only biological factors influenced human evolution. However, as the evolutionary complexity of both an individual human species and society (tribe) as a whole grew, social factors began to play a significant role.

Anthropogenesis is sometimes called anthroposociogenesis, emphasizing the importance of social life in human evolution.

Biological

Humanity, like any other species, was formed under the influence of the driving forces of evolution, which include:

• variability;
• natural selection;
• mutations;
• isolation;
• struggle for existence.

In the early stages of anthropogenesis, natural selection played a decisive role. Thanks to the forces of natural selection, humanity has acquired characteristics that distinguish it from other apes. Evolution was largely facilitated by changes in lifestyle due to changes in climate and terrain.
Thanks to natural selection, humanity has acquired:

• developed brain;
• grasping hand;
• upright walking;
• bare skin (hair is preserved only on the head).

  

  Rice. 1. Differences between humans and chimpanzees.

  It is believed that the ancestors of humans were Dryopithecus, who lived in trees. With the disappearance of forests, they had to gradually enter the savannas and adapt to new conditions, which contributed to further evolution.

  

  Rice. 2. Dryopithecus.

  Social

  The development of human abilities was influenced by social factors of anthropogenesis. First of all, collective labor is distinguished, namely hunting. Man is a rather weak creature to hunt large and dangerous prey alone. Therefore, the unity of the tribe, the distribution of tasks, and the establishment of relationships contributed to a successful hunt.

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  Rice. 3. Collective hunting.

  Also social factors are:

  • speech - ability to communicate;
  • thinking - development of logical thinking, application of experience, training;
  • creation - the ability to create objects, works of art, and solve non-standard problems;
  • social lifestyle - manifestation of altruism, care, respect for socially significant individuals.

  The main advantage of humanity over other animals is the presence of speech. With the help of a system of words, people can communicate, solve complex problems, explain feelings, emotions, their physical state. This increases the speed of information exchange and decision making.

  Social factors are characteristic only of human evolution, despite the fact that many animals lead a social lifestyle.

  What have we learned?

  We examined the main factors of anthropogenesis. Human evolution is influenced by biological and social factors. The leading biological factors of human evolution include variability and natural selection. Social factors inherent only in human evolution are labor, thinking, creativity, speech and social lifestyle.

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Biological factors of anthropogenesis in human evolution. Man is the most recent biological species to appear in the evolution of the organic world. Factors in the evolution of the organic world, such as hereditary variability, the struggle for existence and natural selection, occupy a significant place in human evolution. Charles Darwin proved these natural patterns in human evolution using specific examples. Due to the influence of natural factors, important anatomical and physiological changes occurred in the body of ancient apes. As a result, apes gradually developed upright posture, the functions of the arms and legs were separated, and the arms adapted to the manufacture of tools. Natural selection created favorable conditions for certain groups of people to improve tools, collective hunting, and caring for the elderly. As a result of this activity, group selection took place simultaneously with individual selection. However, biological laws alone are not enough to explain anthropogenesis. In his works, F. Engels (1820-1895) proved the enormous importance of social factors here. He especially noted work, social lifestyle, consciousness and speech.

Labor is the most important factor in human evolution. Any work begins with the manufacture of tools, carried out with the help of hands. F. Engels highly appreciated the role of labor in the development of man. He wrote that “labor is the first basic condition of all human life, and, moreover, to such an extent that we, in a certain sense, must say: labor created man himself." If so, then the main social driving force of anthropogenesis is labor. Some apes can use simple tools, but are not able to create them. Animals influence nature through his life activity, but man changes it in the process of conscious labor.

Human influence on nature is significant and diverse. Our ape-like ancestors, as a result of labor, developed morphological and physiological changes called anthropomorphosis. Labor is the main factor in human evolution. The monkeys lived in the forests, climbing trees, then gradually descended to the ground. This change in their lifestyle created the conditions for walking on two legs. The transition to upright walking “became a decisive step on the path from ape to man” (F. Engels). As a result of upright walking, an S-shaped curve of the human spine appeared, which gave elasticity to the body. The foot (metatarsal bones) became more curved and springy, the pelvic bones expanded, the sacrum became stronger, the jaws became lighter. Such hereditary changes continued for millions of years. The transition to upright walking led to certain difficulties: the speed of movement was limited, the fusion of the sacrum with the thigh made childbirth difficult, and the heavy weight of a person led to flat feet. But thanks to upright walking, man’s hands were freed up for making tools.

IN initial period formation, his hand was underdeveloped and could perform only the simplest actions. Thanks to heredity, such characteristics were preserved and passed on to the next generation. F. Engels explained that the hand is not only an organ of labor, but also a product of labor. With the freeing of the hand, our ape-like ancestors could use simple tools made of stone and animal bone. All this influenced their level of thinking, behavior and contributed to the improvement of tools. The development of labor led to an increased role of social factors in anthropogenesis, but gradually weakened the effects of biological laws (Fig. 58).

Rice. 58.

Social way of life as the driving force of human evolution. Any vital actions of animals are carried out reflexively and instinctively. The transition to a herd lifestyle of animals occurred due to natural selection. From the very beginning, work was social, and the first ape-like ancestors of man lived in herds. Therefore, F. Engels emphasized that it would be wrong to look for the ancestors of man, the most social creature in nature, among non-social animals. Group work contributed to the development of social relationships, the unity of members of society; they collectively hunted animals, defended themselves from predators, and raised children. The older members of society passed on life experience to the younger ones. Man gradually learned to make and maintain fire.

Our distant ancestors gradually moved from plant foods to animal foods. Meat food provided the human body with the necessary beneficial amino acids, so he began to improve hunting and fishing tools. The transition to meat food led to changes in the human body, for example, shortening of the intestines and the development of chewing muscles. The use of fire also made life easier for our ancestors.

With a social way of life, human ancestors had great opportunities to understand nature and accumulate life experience. The joint activities of members of society necessitated communication with gestures and sounds. The first words were directly related to work activity. Gradually, the larynx and organs of the oral cavity, as a result of hereditary variability and natural selection, were transformed into organs of articulate speech.

Man, like animals, perceives signals from the surrounding world through irritation of the senses. This is the first signaling system. The second signaling system is associated with higher nervous activity person. The emergence of speech, the relationship between ancestors through words contributed to the development of the brain and thinking - speech gradually turned into a means of education. Speech strengthened the communication of our ancestors and contributed to the development of social relations. The evolution of our ancestors took place under the combined influence of biological and social factors. Natural selection gradually lost its importance as a leading factor in the evolution of human society. On the contrary, social factors (work, speech) became fundamental in human evolution. If the morphological and physiological characteristics of a person are inherited, then the abilities for collective work activity, thinking and speech have never been inherited and are not transmitted now. These specific human qualities arose historically and were improved under the influence of social factors and develop in each person in the process of his individual development only in society thanks to upbringing and education. Well-known cases of fairly long-term isolation of a child from an early age from human society (raising by animals) have shown that when he returns to normal conditions, his ability to speak and think is very poorly developed or does not develop at all. This confirms that these qualities are not inherited. Each older generation passes on life experience, knowledge, and spiritual values ​​to subsequent ones in the process of upbringing and education. With the development of society, people's work became more diverse. Various branches of the economy appeared, industry developed, science, art, trade, and religion arose. Tribes formed nations and states.

Thus, the main driving forces of anthropogenesis were biological (hereditary variability, struggle for existence and natural selection) and social factors (work activity, social lifestyle, speech and thinking) (Scheme 2).

There are three main stages in human social evolution.

The first is cognition. environment through works of art. For example, rock paintings.

The second stage is directly related to the domestication of wild animals and the development of agriculture. Thus, man began to influence the natural environment.

The third stage is the development of scientific and technological progress, which began in the 15th century. during the Renaissance. Currently, the main social factor has become the human mind. Humanity, having spread widely across the globe, is exploring outer space. The biosphere inhabited by people turns into a noosphere controlled by the human mind.

Biological factors of anthropogenesis. Social factors of anthropogenesis. Anthropomorphosis. Cro-Magnon. Noosphere.

1. The biological factors of anthropogenesis include hereditary variability, the struggle for existence and natural selection.

2. Labor is the main step in human evolution.

3. Progressive changes in human evolution are the manufacture of tools with hands and the transition to upright walking.

4. The social way of life, speech, thinking, and reason have become the main social driving forces of evolution.

1. What factors belong to the biological driving forces of anthropogenesis?

2. Explain the importance of social factors in human evolution.

3. What signs have developed in the structure of the human body as a result of upright walking?

1. What is the role of labor in human evolution?

2. What place does speech occupy in human evolution?

3. What is anthropomorphosis!

1. Characterize social factors.

2. Name the three stages of human social evolution.

3. What is the current influence of social factors on human evolution?

Explain with examples the driving forces of evolution in diagram 2, which shows the biological and social driving forces of human evolution.

There was upright walking, an increase in the volume of the brain and the complication of its organization, development of the hand, and an extension of the period of growth and development. A developed hand with a well-defined grasping function allowed a person to successfully use and then make tools. This gave him advantages in the field, although in terms of his purely physical qualities he was significantly inferior to animals. The most important milestone in human development was the acquisition of the ability to first use and maintain, and then produce fire. The complex activity of making tools, making and maintaining fire could not be achieved by innate behavior, but required individual behavior. Therefore, the need arose to significantly expand the possibility of exchanging signals and a speech factor appeared, which fundamentally distinguishes humans from other animals. The emergence of new functions, in turn, contributes to accelerated development. Thus, the use of hands for hunting and protection and feeding on food softened on fire made the presence of powerful jaws unnecessary, which made it possible to increase the volume of the brain part of the skull due to its facial part and provide further development human mental abilities. The emergence of speech contributed to the development of a more advanced structure of society, the division of responsibilities between its members, which also provided advantages in the struggle for existence. Thus, the factors of anthropogenesis can be divided into biological and social.

Biological factors - hereditary variability, as well as the mutation process, isolation - apply to. Under their influence, in the process of biological evolution, morphological changes occurred in the ape-like ancestor - anthropomorphosis. The decisive step on the path from ape to man was upright walking. This led to the release of the hand from the functions of movement. The hand begins to be used to perform various functions - grasping, holding, throwing.

No less important prerequisites for anthropogenesis were the biological features of human ancestors: a herd lifestyle, an increase in brain volume in relation to the general proportions of the body, binocular vision.

Social factors of anthropogenesis include work activity, social lifestyle, development of speech and thinking. Social factors began to play a leading role in anthropogenesis. However, the life of each individual is subject to biological laws: mutations remain as a source of variability, stabilizing selection acts, eliminating sharp deviations from the norm.

Factors of anthropogenesis

1) Biological

natural selection amid the struggle for existence
genetic drift
insulation
hereditary variability
2) Social

public life
consciousness
speech
work activity
In the first stages of human evolution, biological factors played a dominant role, and in the last stages, social factors. Labor, speech, consciousness are most closely connected with each other. In the process of labor, the members of society united and fast development way of communication between them, which is speech.

The common ancestors of humans and apes - small arboreal insectivorous placental mammals - lived in the Mesozoic. In the Paleogene of the Cenozoic era, a branch separated from them, leading to the ancestors of modern apes - Parapithecus.

Parapithecus Dryopithecus Pithecanthropus Sinanthropus Neanderthal Cro-Magnon modern man.

Analysis of paleontological finds allows us to identify the main stages and directions of the historical development of humans and great apes. Modern science gives the following answer: humans and modern apes had a common ancestor. Further, their development followed the path of divergence (divergence of characteristics, accumulation of differences) in connection with specific and different conditions of existence.

Human ancestry

Insectivorous mammals Parapithecus:

Propliopithecus, Orangutan
Dryopithecus Chimpanzees, Australopithecines The earliest people(Pithecanthropus, Sinanthropus, Heidelberg man) Ancient people (Neanderthals) New people (Cro-Magnon man, modern man
We emphasize that the human pedigree presented above is hypothetical. Let us also recall that if the name of the ancestral form ends in “pithecus,” then we are still talking about a monkey. If at the end of the name there is “anthrop”, then we have a person in front of us. True, this does not mean that his biological organization necessarily lacks the characteristics of a monkey. It is necessary to understand that the characteristics of a person prevail in this case. From the name “pithecanthropus” it follows that this organism exhibits a combination of characteristics of a monkey and a human, and in approximately equal proportions. Let's give brief description some of the supposed ancestral forms of man.

Dryopithecus

Lived approximately 25 million years ago.

Characteristic features of development:

significantly smaller than a person (height about 110 cm);
led a predominantly arboreal lifestyle;
probably manipulated objects;
there are no tools.
Australopithecus

Lived approximately 9 million years ago

Characteristic features of development:

height 150–155 cm, weight up to 70 kg;
skull volume – about 600 cm3;
probably used objects as tools for obtaining food and protection;
characterized by upright posture;
jaws are more massive than those of humans;
highly developed brow ridges;
joint hunting, herd lifestyle;
often ate the remains of predators' prey
Pithecanthropus

Lived approximately 1 million years ago

Characteristic features of development:

height 165–170 cm;
brain volume about 1100 cm3;
constant upright posture; speech formation;
mastery of fire
SYNATHROP

Lived probably 1–2 million years ago

Characteristic features of development:

height about 150 cm;
upright walking;
production of primitive stone tools;
maintaining fire;
social lifestyle; cannibalism
NEANDERTHAL

Lived 200–500 thousand years ago

Characteristic features:

Biological:

height 165–170 cm;
brain volume 1200–1400 cm3;
lower limbs are shorter than those of modern humans;
the femur is strongly curved;
low sloping forehead;
highly developed brow ridges
Social:

lived in groups of 50–100 individuals;
used fire;
made various tools;
built hearths and dwellings;
carried out the first burials of their fallen brothers;
speech is probably more advanced than that of Pithecanthropus;
perhaps the emergence of the first religious ideas; skilled hunters;
cannibalism persisted
CRO-MANNON

Lived 30–40 thousand years ago

Characteristic features:

Biological:

height up to 180 cm;
brain volume about 1600 cm3;
there is no continuous supraorbital ridge;
dense build;
developed muscles
Social:

lived in a tribal community;
built settlements;
made complex tools from bone and stone;
knew how to grind and drill;
deliberately buried his dead brothers;
rudimentary religious ideas appear;
developed articulate speech;
wore clothes made of skins;
purposeful transfer of experience to descendants;
sacrificed oneself for the sake of the tribe or family;
treated the elderly with care;
the emergence of art;
domestication of animals;
first steps of farming
MODERN MAN

Currently lives on all continents

Characteristic features:

Biological:

height 160–190 cm;
brain volume about 1600 cm3;
presence of different races
Social:

complex tools;
high achievements in science, technology, art, education

1. What social factors were the main driving forces of anthropogenesis?

The social factors of human evolution were revealed by F. Engels in the book “The Role of Labor in the Transformation of Apes into Humans” (1896). This is work, its social character, speech, consciousness and thinking. Labor began with the manufacture of tools. Animals can use tools, but they cannot make one tool to create another.

Social nature of work:

a) The herd way of life turns into a social way of life through joint labor.

b) Labor increases cohesion, promotes protection, hunting and raising offspring.

c) Common labor led to the development of articulate speech. Changes in the larynx and oral apparatus make them suitable for speech. A second signaling system appears, allowing the world to be reproduced using words.

Speech and thinking:

a) Joint work leads to the development of the brain, as a result, the tools of labor become more complex. As a result of labor, the hand develops, which leads to the development of the part of the brain responsible for the development of speech.

b) The development of speech weakened the effect of biological development factors and increased the influence of social factors.

c) If the morphological and physiological characteristics of a person are inherited, then the abilities for collective work, activity, thinking and speech are not transmitted. These specific human qualities arose historically and were improved under the influence of social factors and develop in each person in the process of his individual development only in society thanks to upbringing and education.

2. What stages (phases) are distinguished in the process of human development? Name the representatives of each stage, characterize them. Material from the site

Stage, time of appearance of the sign	Representatives	Signs
Branch of the hominid branch, about 5 million years BC.	Australopithecus	Homeland - Southeast Africa; brain volume no more than 600 cm 3, massive jaws, upright posture, thumb well developed, use of natural objects as tools, hunting, gathering
Pre-hominid stage, 2-3 million years BC.	A skilled man	Homeland - East Africa, South Africa, Southeast Asia; brain volume: 500-800 cm 3, making tools, cooperation during hunting
The earliest people, 1-2 million years BC.	Upright Man: Pithecanus-trope Sinanthropus	Homeland - Southeast Asia, Europe; brain volume: 800-1400 cm 3, maintaining a fire, simple forms of collective activity, primitive speech Homeland - East Asia; brain volume 700-1200 cm 3, dressed in skins, lived in caves, had more modern tools, used fire
Ancient people, 250 thousand years BC.	Homo sapiens: Neanderthals	Homeland - Europe, Africa, Asia, lived in caves in groups; brain volume 1400 cm 3, used fire and stone tools, first burials, babble-type speech
Modern (new) people, 50 thousand years BC.	Cro-Magnon, Modern Man	Homeland - Europe, Asia, Australia, America; brain volume: 1600 cm 3, housing, more modern tools, clothing, art, real speech, thinking, agriculture. Painting on cave walls, making jewelry, domesticating the first animals. Distribution everywhere, development of agriculture, industry and culture

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