Methodology of geographical science. Methods of geography Methods and technologies of research in geographical sciences

Traditional methods. Perhaps the most ancient and widespread method of geographical research is comparative-geographical. Its foundations were laid by ancient scientists (Herodotus, Aristotle), but in the Middle Ages, due to the general stagnation of science, the research methods used by scientists of the ancient world were forgotten. A. Humboldt is considered the founder of the modern comparative geographical method, who initially used it to study the connections between climate and vegetation. Geographer and traveler, member of the Berlin Academy of Sciences and honorary member of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences (1815), Humboldt visited Russia in 1829 (Urals, Altai, Caspian region). His monumental five-volume work “Cosmos” (1848-1863) and the three-volume work “Central Asia” (1915) were published in Russia.

“Based on general principles and using the comparative method, Humboldt created physical geography designed to clarify patterns on the earth’s surface in its solid, liquid and air shells” (TSB, 1972. - P. 446).

K. Ritter also widely used the comparative method in geography. His most famous works are “Geography in relation to nature and human history, or General Comparative Geography”, “Ideas on Comparative Geography”.

Currently, comparison as a specific logical technique permeates all methods of geographical research, but at the same time it has long stood out as an independent method of scientific research - comparative geographical, which has acquired especially great importance in geography and biology.

The nature of the Earth is so diverse that only a comparison of various natural complexes makes it possible to identify their features, their most characteristic, and therefore most significant features. “Comparison helps to highlight what is special and therefore most important from the flow of geographic information” (K.K. Markov et al., 1978. -- P. 48). Identification of similarities and differences in PTC allows us to judge the causality of similarities and genetic connections of objects. The comparative geographical method underlies any classification of PTC and other objects and natural phenomena. It is the basis for various types of assessment work, during which the properties of the PTC are compared with the requirements for them imposed by one or another type of economic use of the territory.

At the first stages of its application, the comparative method was limited to visual comparison of objects and phenomena, then verbal and cartographic images began to be analyzed. In both cases, mainly the shapes of objects and their external characteristics were compared, i.e. the comparison was morphological. Subsequently, with the development of geochemical, geophysical and aerospace methods, the possibility and necessity arose of using a comparative method to characterize processes and their intensity, to study the relationships between various natural objects, i.e. for studying essence PTK. The capabilities and reliability of the comparative method, the depth and completeness of the characteristics obtained with its help, the accuracy and reliability of the results are constantly increasing. The mass nature of geographic information forces us to tighten the requirements for its homogeneity. This is achieved by strictly recording observations in special forms and tables. At a short stage (in the 60s and 70s of the 20th century), punched cards were used to analyze a large number of materials. Currently, the comparative method is inextricably linked with mathematics and the use of computer technology.

The role of the comparative method is especially great at the stage of finding empirical dependencies, but in fact it is present at all levels of scientific research.

There are two main aspects of the application of the comparative geographical method. First aspect associated with the use of inferences by analogy (method of analogies). It consists of comparing a poorly studied or unknown object with a well-studied one. For example, in landscape mapping, even in the office period and in the process of reconnaissance familiarization with the territory, groups of PTCs of similar nature are identified. Of these, only a few are examined in detail, in the rest the scope of field work is very reduced, some are not visited at all, and their characteristics in the map legend are given on the basis of materials from well-studied PTCs.

Second aspect consists in the study of identically studied objects. There are two possible ways to compare such objects. You can compare objects located on same stage of development which allows us to establish their similarities and differences, to search and find the factors and reasons that determine their similarities. This will allow you to group objects by similarity, and then apply the characteristics of objects of the same type to make recommendations on their use, predict their further development, etc.

Another way is to compare objects that exist simultaneously, have been studied in the same way, but are located at the same time. different

stages of development. This path makes it possible to reveal the stages of development of objects that are similar in genesis. Such a comparison underlies Boltzmann's ergodic principle, which makes it possible to trace their history in time using changes in the PTC in space. For example, the development of erosional landforms from a ravine to a gully and a stream valley. In this way, the comparative method logically and naturally led geography to the historical method of research.

Cartographic method knowledge of reality is as widespread and as (or almost as) ancient as the comparative geographical one. The ancestors of modern maps were cave paintings of ancient man, drawings on leather, wood or bone carvings, later the first primitive “maps” for navigation, etc. (K. N. Dyakonov, N. S. Kasimov, V. S. Tikunov, 1996). Ptolemy was the first to realize the importance of the cartographic method and put it into use. The cartographic method continued to develop intensively even in the Middle Ages. Suffice it to recall the Flemish cartographer Mercator (1512-1599), who created a cylindrical equiangular projection of the world map, which is still used in marine cartography (K.N. Dyakonov et al., 1996).

The cartographic method acquired especially great importance and development during the era of the Great Geographical Discoveries. Initially, maps were used exclusively for depicting the relative placement and combination of various geographical objects, comparing their sizes, for the purpose of orientation, and estimating distances. Thematic maps for scientific research appeared only in the 19th century. A. Humboldt was one of the first creators of maps that depicted abstract concepts. In particular, he introduced into science a new term “isotherms” - lines that make it possible to depict on a map the distribution of heat in a territory (invisible on the ground). In soil mapping, V.V. Dokuchaev also not only depicted the spatial distribution of soils, but also built map legends taking into account the genetic principle and soil formation factors. A.G. Isachenko (1951) wrote that with the help of maps not only the composition and structure of geographical complexes can be studied, but also the elements of their dynamics and development.

Gradually, the cartographic method became an integral part of a wide variety of geographical studies. L. S. Berg (1947) noted that the map is the beginning and the end of the geographical study, description and identification of the landscape. N.N. Baransky also argued that “the map is the “alpha and omega” (i.e., the beginning and end) of geography. Every geographical research starts from a map and comes to a map; it begins with a map and ends with a map.” “The map... helps to identify geographic patterns.” “The map is, as it were, the second language of geography...” (1960).

According to K. A. Salishchev (1955, 1976, etc.), the cartographic research method consists of using a variety of maps to describe, analyze and understand phenomena, to obtain new knowledge and characteristics, study development processes, establish relationships and forecast phenomena.

At the initial stages of cognition, the cartographic method - the mapping method - is used as a method of displaying objective reality. The map serves as a specific form of recording the results of observations, accumulation and storage of geographic information.

A unique protocol of field observations is a map of factual material, further analysis of which makes it possible to create a primary thematic (special) map. The legend to the map is the result of the classification of the objects depicted on it. Thus, in creating a thematic map, not only a cartographic, but also a comparative method is used, the use of which makes it possible to classify factual data, identify certain patterns and, on their basis, perform generalization, i.e. move from the concrete to the abstract, to the formation of new scientific concepts.

Based on a map of factual material, a whole series of special maps can be compiled (A. A. Vidina, 1962), the main one of which is a landscape-typological map - the result of field landscape mapping.

A landscape map, which is a reduced generalized image of a PTC on a plane, is, first of all, a spatial symbolic model of natural territorial complexes, obtained according to certain mathematical laws. And like any model, it itself serves as a source of new information about the PTC. The cartographic research method is precisely aimed at obtaining and analyzing this information with the aim of deeper knowledge of objects and phenomena.

The source of information in this case is not objective reality itself, but its cartographic model. The results of such indirect observations in the form of various qualitative or quantitative data are recorded in the form of verbal descriptions, tables, matrices, graphs, etc. and serve as material for identifying empirical patterns using comparative, historical, mathematical and logical methods.

Even broader prospects for studying the interrelations and dependencies between objects, establishing the main factors of their formation and the reasons for the observed placement open up with the combined study of several maps of different contents. Maps of the same content, but compiled and published at different times, or maps compiled simultaneously, but recording different points in time (for example, a series of maps of average monthly temperatures, a series of paleogeographic maps, etc.) can be compared. The main goal of comparing maps from different times is to study the dynamics and development of the objects and phenomena depicted on them. In this case, the accuracy and reliability of the compared maps are of great importance.

Not only cartographic methods and maps are being improved, but also methods for their analysis. In the recent past, the main and almost the only method of analyzing maps was visual analysis. Its result is a qualitative description of objects with some quantitative characteristics that could be read from a map or assessed by eye and presented in the form of separate indicators, tables, and graphs. It is important not to limit oneself to a simple presentation of facts, but to try to reveal connections and causes, and evaluate the objects being studied. Then it appeared and became widely used graphical analysis, which consists in compiling, based on data obtained from maps, various profiles, sections, graphs, charts, block diagrams, etc. and their further study. Graphic-analytical techniques of analysis maps (A. M. Berlyant, 1978) consist of measuring quantitative spatial characteristics of objects using maps: line lengths, areas, angles and directions. Based on the measurement results, various morphoanalytical indicators are calculated. Graphic-analytical techniques are often called cartometry, or cartometric analysis.

The cartographic research method is especially widely used at the initial stages of cognition (when collecting and recording the results of observations in nature and their systematization), as well as to reflect the empirical patterns identified in the process of studying and obtain new information from ready-made maps, the processing of which using other methods makes it impossible to not only to obtain new empirical patterns, but also to form a theory of science. Mapping research results is an integral part of complex physical-geographical research.

Historical method knowledge of nature is also one of the traditional methods of geographical research, although it was formed much later than the comparative and cartographic methods and relies heavily on them.

The emergence of the historical method became possible only in the 18th century, when the idea of ​​the variability of the nature of the Earth's surface spread. Its founders were the German scientist I. Kant, who created the nebular cosmogony

skaya hypothesis (1755), and our great compatriot M.V. Lomonosov. Everyone knows the remarkable statement of Lomonosov in his work “On the Layers of the Earth” (1763): “And, firstly, we must firmly remember that visible bodily things on Earth and the whole world were not in such a state from the beginning from creation, as we now find ; but great changes took place in it, as shown by History and ancient Geography, which has been demolished with the present one...”

Recognition of the variability of the nature of the Earth required its study. Attempts to use pre-existing methods to solve this problem led to their transformation due to the emergence of new aspects of their application, the solution of new problems and the use of new techniques, as a result of which the historical method was formed.

The modern historical method is based on the position of dialectical materialism about the continuous movement and development of matter. The historical method plays a decisive role in all cases when the objects and processes under study require their consideration in development and formation, therefore it is one of the main methods of comprehensive physical geography. Back in 1902, D. N. Anuchin wrote that “an idea about evolution, about the course of development, about the processes and forces by which this development was caused and conditioned” is necessary to have “for a more meaningful understanding of the present.” The historical method allows “to know the present in its development” (K.K. Markov, 1948. - P. 85), is the key to understanding the modern laws of nature and helps to predict its development in the future.

The task of historical analysis in complex physical-geographical studies is to trace the formation of modern features of the Earth’s nature, to establish the initial state of a particular PTC and a number of its specific transition states (stages of development), to study the current state as a result of the changes that have occurred, to identify the driving forces and conditions of the process development. However, in historical analysis, it is not the states of natural complexes themselves that are most often used, but various “traces” of once existing states. Retrospective analysis, based on the study of the “traces of states” of the PTC, makes it possible to understand the relationships between various components and complexes in the historical aspect, i.e., to create a spatio-temporal characteristic of the PTC.

V. A. Nikolaev (1979) draws attention to the fact that in complex physical-geographical studies, retrospective analysis should be quite comprehensive, i.e. should include not only lithogenic, but also biogenic components, which record the latest stages of the formation of PTC and therefore provide valuable material for establishing trends in the further development of complexes. How deeply such an analysis can penetrate into the past of the PTC and how reliable and detailed it will be depends on the age, abundance and diversity of such “state traces”.

Along with a retrospective analysis of the structure of modern PTCs, a number of other methods are used for paleogeographic reconstructions: spore-pollen, carpological, palynological, faunal analyses, study of buried soils and weathering crust, archaeological, radiocarbon, stratigraphic, mineralogical, granulometric, etc.

The depth of paleogeographic analysis depends to a very large extent on the rank of the natural complex being studied. The larger the complex, the more stable it is, the longer the period of time that needs to be analyzed when studying the processes of its formation. The smaller the complex, the younger it is, the more mobile it is and the shorter the time period for its formation. Most often, paleogeographic analysis is used to study Quaternary (Anthropogen) history, but can also be used for more distant periods.

Currently, it is increasingly common to “compare states over time”, i.e. the historical method is used in combination with geophysical and geochemical methods to study the simplest and most dynamic complexes, to study the complexes themselves and the factors that formed or shaped them in the recent past. Such a study is based on direct observations, mainly in hospitals, of modern processes occurring in the industrial complex, or on the analysis of cartographic and aerial photographs. V.S. Preobrazhensky (1969) highlights this aspect of the application of the historical method as an independent component of it - dynamic method.

It is also worth mentioning the possibility of conducting analysis based on the study of historical documents. Such an analysis can be called strictly historical.

Research methods in geography today remain the same as before. However, this does not mean that they do not undergo changes. The latest methods of geographical research are appearing, allowing us to significantly expand the capabilities of humanity and the boundaries of the unknown. But before considering these innovations, it is necessary to understand the usual classification.

Methods of geographical research are various ways of obtaining information within the science of geography. They are divided into several groups. So, the cartographic method is the use of maps as the main source of information. They can give an idea not only of the relative position of objects, but also of their sizes, the extent of distribution of various phenomena, and a lot of other useful information.

The statistical method says that it is impossible to consider and study peoples, countries, and natural objects without the use of statistical data. That is, it is very important to know what the depth, height, reserves of natural resources of a given territory are, its area, the population of a particular country, its demographic indicators, as well as production indicators.

The historical method implies that our world has developed and everything on the planet has its own rich history. Thus, in order to study modern geography, it is necessary to have knowledge about the history of the development of the Earth itself and the humanity living on it.

The methods of geographical research are continued by the economic-mathematical method. These are nothing more than numbers: calculations of mortality, fertility, population density, resource availability, migration balance, and so on.

The comparative geographical method helps to more fully evaluate and describe the differences and similarities of geographical objects. After all, everything in this world is subject to comparison: smaller or larger, slower or faster, lower or higher, and so on. This method makes it possible to classify geographical objects and predict their changes.

Methods of geographical research cannot be imagined without observations. They can be continuous or periodic, areal and route, remote or stationary, however, they all provide the most important data on the development of geographical objects and the changes that they undergo. It is impossible to study geography while sitting at a table in an office or at a school desk in a classroom; you need to learn to extract useful information from what you can see with your own eyes.

One of the important methods of studying geography has been and remains the method of geographic zoning. This is the identification of economic and natural (physical-geographical) areas. The method of geographic modeling is no less important. We all know from our school days the most striking example of a geographical model - the globe. But modeling can be machine, mathematical and graphical.

Geographic forecast is the ability to predict the consequences that may arise as a result of human development. This method makes it possible to reduce the negative impact of human activities on the environment, avoid undesirable phenomena, rationally use all kinds of resources, and so on. Modern methods of geographical research have revealed to the world GIS - geographic information systems, that is, a complex of digital maps, associated software and statistics, which give people the opportunity to work with maps directly on their computer. And thanks to the Internet, satellite positioning systems appeared, popularly known as GPS. They consist of ground-based tracking equipment, navigation satellites and various devices that receive information and determine coordinates. Point method– involves the digital assessment of geographical objects and processes, for example,

In geography, along with methods common to all sciences, special (geographical) ones are also used.

Geographic research methods can be divided into three groups. Firstly, these are field research methods, when the study of geographical objects occurs directly in the field. Geographical expeditions and permanent stations and laboratories are one of the most important sources of information about the processes occurring in the geographical environment. Using another group of methods - cameral (from the Latin camera - room, treasury) - geographical information is processed, systematized, generalized. An example of such work is the processing of materials from aerial and space surveys of the Earth. With the help of desk methods, the essence of geographical phenomena is learned and the patterns of their development are established. The third group is experimental methods with which scientists can test the truth of their assumptions and penetrate deeper into the secrets of nature. As you can see, all methods of geographical research are closely related to each other. At each stage of research, certain methods are used. In order to get to know them in more detail, we will use the traditional historical approach to geography.

Descriptive, expeditionary and cartographic methods are the first in the history of geography. The descriptive method was the very first way to understand the world around us. For many centuries, geography remained primarily a descriptive science.

Everything that a person learned about new lands, he received during expeditions (travels). During expeditions, various geographical objects and phenomena are observed and described. The cartographic method appeared simultaneously with the emergence of geography. Along with the description of objects on the earth’s surface, a special – geographical way of displaying and systematizing knowledge about the territory under study – appears. It is no coincidence that the map is called the “second language” of geography. Geographical research begins and ends with it. But the main thing is that with the help of a map you can “embrace” the entire surface of our planet at once.

Methods of comparison, historical and generalization in geography. The accumulation of a huge amount of information about our planet has raised the problem of their generalization and systematization. Comparison of different elements of the geographical shell led to the fact that similar elements were combined with each other. Such a generalization and at the same time comparison of geographical data made it possible to group phenomena into different classes, which became the reason for the formation of a typological approach in geography.

Geography was one of the first sciences to take a historical approach to understanding the phenomena of the world. Geographers began to compare objects not only by their location, but also by the time of formation. In geography, the historical method is widely used also because the connection between geography and history has always been close.

Mathematical methods and modeling in geography. As long as undiscovered lands existed, geography did not face the urgent task of explaining the world. A superficial description of the various territories was enough for the study to be considered geographical. But the rapid growth of human economic activity required penetration into the secrets of nature. To do this, geographers were forced to borrow research methods from other sciences. The use of mathematical methods made it possible not only to measure geographical objects, but also to find average indicators in a number of observations and to identify statistical (mathematical) patterns. This led to the discovery of the causes of rain floods on rivers, the emergence of ideas about cyclones and anticyclones, principles for choosing sites for building enterprises, etc.

All geographical systems (natural, economic, natural-economic) have a structure, that is, a certain way of organizing the relationships between elements. With the advent of the modeling method in geography, knowledge of the structure of different geosystems has gone far ahead. Models are widely used to simulate processes that cannot be reproduced in experiments. The models reflect the main properties of the object, and the secondary ones are discarded.

Remote sensing methods. Achievements of science and technology in the 20th century. have greatly changed traditional ways of studying the Earth. Remote methods are called when the observer (or measuring apparatus) is at some distance from the object of study. At the same time, the area covered by surveillance increases significantly. The appearance of materials from aerospace surveys of the earth's surface has led to an increase in the flow of new information about long-known objects and phenomena of the Earth.

Photography of the earth's surface in the optical range (in red, blue, green and other colors) provides information about the state of the soil and vegetation cover of the territory, the transparency of water in reservoirs, etc. Photography in the infrared range, invisible to the human eye, allows one to obtain information about temperature land and oceans, and the concentration of agricultural pests. Photography using radio waves shows the amount of moisture in the soil, groundwater levels, etc.

Using remote methods, information is obtained in a form that allows it to be put into a computer and automatically processed. This led to the creation of geographic information systems, geographic data banks, which are widely used in cartography and mathematical modeling of geosystems.

Stationary, laboratory and experimental methods. In modern geography, instead of short-term expeditions, complex geographical stations are organized. The stationary method of studying the geographical envelope involves the use of permanent stations, laboratories, and expeditions. Methods of sciences close to geography make it possible to observe a whole complex of geographical phenomena under constant conditions. Thus, in geography, geophysical, geochemical and biological methods appeared using their characteristic laboratory method (for example, the study of the chemical composition of soil or the physical properties of polluted air).

The main task of conducting complex stationary studies is to uncover connections between phenomena. Disclosure of these main relationships allows, firstly, to create a model of the object being studied, and secondly, to conduct an experiment in nature.

For example, to find out how farming affects soil erosion, two plots with the same conditions are selected. The experimental site is plowed up and sown with agricultural crops, while the other (control) site remains unchanged. The extent and rate of soil erosion at the two sites is then measured and the impact of agricultural activities on the soil cover is inferred.

Today it is not enough to explain why and how geosystems and their elements develop; it is also necessary to foresee how they can change under human influence. A new stage of geographical research is beginning - the stage of prediction. At this stage, problems are solved about what the object will be like in the future. For this purpose, environmental monitoring and geographic forecasting are used.

Environmental monitoring. Monitoring (from the Latin monitor - warning) is an information system whose task is to observe and assess the environment under the influence of human influence. The purpose of this method is the rational use of natural resources and environmental protection. There are three main types of monitoring: local, regional, global. Unlike the first two, a global monitoring system has not yet been created. It should ensure monitoring of planetary changes in the geographic envelope - in the composition of the atmosphere, in the cycles of substances, etc. So far, fragments of such monitoring exist in the form of biosphere reserves, research stations and laboratories. They monitor and control physical, chemical, and biological changes in the environment. The information received is transmitted to national and international centers.

Geographic forecast. One of the tasks of geographic forecasts is the development of scientifically based predictions about the state and development of the natural environment in the future. In order to make a reliable forecast, it is necessary, first of all, to rely on a historical approach to the object and accordingly consider it in the process of development. There are several hundred forecasting methods. Some of them are familiar to you. The method of geographical analogies allows us to transfer the patterns of development of some geosystems to others. At the same time, it can be foreseen that younger systems will go the way of geosystems that are at a high stage of development. One of the most important forecasting methods is extrapolation - it is like a continuation of existing patterns into the future. To do this, you need to study the object well enough. Mathematical modeling methods are also successfully used in forecasting.

Geographers are also involved in the preparation of economic and social forecasts, which must take into account the dynamics of environmental development. As a rule, forecasts are related to a specific territory and are compiled for a specific purpose. For example, a forecast for the comprehensive development of new territories.

The connection of geography with other sciences The interpenetration of ideas and methods of various sciences is a distinctive feature of our time. Integration, an integrated approach is necessary to solve environmental, economic and social problems of society. Nowadays, the relationship between nature and man is especially relevant. When analyzing what is happening, the subject areas of geography, physics, chemistry, mathematics, biology, history, ecology, and literature intersect. Appealing to knowledge in these areas helps to reveal not only the issues of individual sciences, but also to see the inextricable connection between academic subjects. But whatever the program requirements and methodological instructions, they will be implemented in practice only if the teacher is sufficiently aware of the essence of interdisciplinary connections, is convinced of their necessity and has the practical skills to implement them in their work. Interdisciplinary connections are sometimes considered only from the point of view of rationalizing the learning process, saving students’ time and effort, and students’ more solid assimilation of knowledge in the subjects they study. Meanwhile, the main task of establishing interdisciplinary connections is to qualitatively raise the level of knowledge, skills and development of students through deeper penetration into the objectively existing natural connections in the phenomena of nature and society. The relevance of the problem of interdisciplinary connections in teaching is due to objective processes in modern culture. “Integration” translated from Latin means “combining any parts into a whole.” An integrated lesson is also a combination of knowledge from various subjects on a specific topic. Geography is so universal that, if the teacher wishes, it can be integrated with any subject. The ideal option would be to conduct integrated lessons together with other teachers. But you can use integration elements yourself. In every geography lesson you can find a connection with some discipline. The rich content of the geography course provides the teacher with ample opportunities for organizing a variety of student activities and choosing teaching methods and means. The course has great potential in the mental development of students and in the ability to integrate information from many sources. In our lessons, each of us, to one degree or another, encounters elements of integration. In my report I will try to present some of the possible elements.

Physics Geography: 6 Class When studying the topic “Atmosphere”, the connection between the geography program and physics is very close. This topic includes concepts such as temperature, atmospheric pressure, humidity, precipitation, wind. Students are introduced to the concepts of temperature and pressure in the 7th grade physics course, but in the 6th grade geography course these quantities are already discussed. Therefore, it is advisable to consider these concepts from the point of view of physics with children as propaedeutics, show experiments, explain these phenomena, expand and deepen knowledge already in the 6th grade in geography lessons. Geography: 7 Class When studying the topic “Tropical Deserts of Africa,” the physical phenomena of mirages, groaning stones, and singing sands are considered. Physics provides an explanation for these physical phenomena, since children in physics lessons become familiar with such concepts as the density of matter, changes in the properties of bodies when heated and cooled. Therefore, the essence of many phenomena and processes is explained by physics. Geography: 8 Class When studying the topic “Relief of Russia” there is a connection with physics. Internal processes and the movement of mantle matter shape the Earth's topography. Tectonic movements, volcanism, earthquakes explain physical laws very well.

Mathematics Geography: 6 Class When studying the topic “Atmosphere”, the connection between the geography program and mathematics is very close. The 6th grade mathematics course examines bar and pie charts, calculates the arithmetic mean, and reads graphs. And all this is very useful for obtaining the average monthly and average annual air temperature. The children learn to answer questions using graphs of temperature versus season and altitude. Determine the prevailing wind direction using the wind rose graph. To see a visual representation of the amount of precipitation throughout the year and by month, bar and pie charts are built. Geography: 8 Class Determination of the slope and fall of the river, moisture coefficient. Geography: 10 Class Analysis of the sex and age pyramid. Calculation of resource availability of certain types of minerals. Thus, students are convinced that, using mathematical methods that process observation results, identify patterns, scientists draw conclusions and make predictions.

Biology Geography: 7 Class A lesson in general repetition in the form of a game - competition on the topic “Australia” is integrated with biology. The flora and fauna of Australia is unique from a biological point of view, so it is advisable to integrate geography with biology. Geography: 8 Class Studying the topic “Rivers and People” in 8th grade helps to understand the important role of rivers in human economic activity. The importance of fish in human life is a connection with biology. Study of the flora and fauna of Russia and the region. Using additional material, students selecting interesting facts about the animal and plant world.

Chemistry Geography: 6 Class Study of the gas composition of the atmosphere. Negative consequences of economic activities and pollution of river water with household and industrial waste (theme “Rivers and People”) Data on the composition and percentage of harmful substances in the atmosphere and hydrosphere.

Story Geographical discoveries. History of settlement and development of territories. The history of the origin of geographical accessories: compass, map, globe, etc.

Ecology Geography: 8 Class When studying modes of transport. Human economic activity. Geography: 10 Class“Land resources, problems of use” Show that the true wealth of humanity is soils, which are the product of millennia. Identify the regions and continents that occupy the leading positions of cultivated land, meadows and pastures. The conclusion of the lesson could be this: preserving the planet’s land fund is one of the most important tasks of humanity. Land reclamation is becoming particularly important in the modern world. Homework: What environmental consequences arise from the irrational use of land resources.

Drawing Using reproductions, photographs Drawing illustrations (for example, for the fairy tale about the water cycle). Drawings for “warm-up” in 6th grade.

Computer science In geography lessons, information technologies are mastered and successfully implemented. Training programs with game elements are used, which are designed for the primary systematization of facts, terms, individual concepts, as well as training programs, modeling, monitoring, and demonstration programs. Demonstration programs are used to explain material. Training programs help students master a large number of terms and develop skills related to solving various problems. The high effectiveness of control programs is determined by the fact that they strengthen feedback in the teacher-student system. But for now I’m just introducing these programs into my work system.

life safety fundamentals Adverse natural phenomena and natural disasters are considered in a general overview when studying the relevant components of nature. It is advisable to allocate an additional lesson to this topic at the end of the school year to systematize and generalize knowledge. Natural phenomena are considered according to the usual scheme. During the lesson, it is advisable to remember the rules of human behavior, measures to prevent and reduce the destructive consequences of a natural phenomenon.

Music Explain the words from L. Derbenev’s song: “It’s warm and damp in the city, but outside the city it’s winter, winter, winter.” In one of the lessons, while the children are drawing geographical objects on the contour map of Antarctica, I use as the background the song “In Antarctica, ice floes hid the land...” Comment on the song: “The wind was blowing from the sea, the wind was blowing from the sea... Catching up with trouble, catching up trouble..." What phenomenon is the song talking about? What time of day did this happen? (The wind blows from the sea during the day, this is a day breeze, which means the conversation took place during the day.)

Literature In my work I pay great attention to the use of artistic words. Literary works often contain excellent descriptions of natural phenomena, a particular territory, or objects being studied, i.e., the literary word acts as a means of forming geographical knowledge. Literary material educates, evokes an emotional reaction, and infects with interest in the search for truth.

Sayings and proverbs: Explain the saying: “A lot of snow - a lot of bread.” Why did this or that proverb appear among a certain people: “Tomorrow June may fall on me too.” (June - the beginning of the rainy season) - South America.

Signs of weather - folk calendar Poems about the seasons Reading excerpts from works of art that talk about geographical phenomena or objects. Analysis of reading from the point of view of geography.

Fromfrom the above it follows that the unity of teaching andeducation, an integrated approach to interdisciplinary connections contribute to a greater extent, allowing to qualitatively raise the level of knowledge and skills through deeper penetration into objectively existing connections innatural phenomena andsociety.

This material gives a complete understanding of the methods of geographical research, emphasizes the importance and necessity of each of them, and also points to the constant development of geography as a science.

Methods of geographical research

Geographic research methods mean methods or methods for obtaining geographically oriented information.

They include techniques and methods for studying the laws according to which the formation and development of the nature of the planet occurs. Thanks to this scientific approach, today there is not a single large territory left that has not been studied by man. But still some phenomena and processes have not been sufficiently studied.

Methods of geographical research are divided into traditional and modern.

Traditional ones include:

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• Observation method - gives a complete picture of geographical objects;
• Cartographic method - makes it possible to observe the patterns of location of geographical objects in space using thematic maps (general geographical or complex);
• Statistical method - allows you to process, analyze and systematize data obtained through observations;
• Historical method - engages in the study of geographical objects, from the moment of their origin to the present;
• Comparative method - a way of detecting common features or differences between objects or phenomena.

The comparative method is used to classify the phenomena and objects being studied in order to predict possible changes in space and time.

All research methods are closely related and intertwined.

Modern methods of geographical research

Like any science, geography is constantly evolving. Development presupposes the availability of new research methods.

Rice. 1. Meteorological station.

Modern methods of geographical research include:

• Remote sensing methods - use in their work aerospace research and compilation of detailed maps of the Earth using aircraft;
• Geographic forecast and modeling method - makes it possible to get an idea of ​​the possible state of the geosystem. Within the framework of this method, models of the possible state of geosystems in the future are designed;

Rice. 2. Computer modeling.

• Geoinformation method - a method of creating a database from information transmitted by space satellites and meteorological stations.

Rice. 3. Satellite in space.

Geographic research data is often used for its purposes by industry, agriculture, geodetic industry, and cartography.

Today, astronautics is actively used for detailed study of the Earth.

What have we learned?

From the material on geography for grade 5, we learned: what methods and techniques are used in geography for research. This makes it possible for geography to develop as a science. Where and how the data provided by geographic research is used. How new technologies make it easier to monitor the state of the planet.

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