The alphabet is Russian in variety. Alphabet letter numbers

B ukva "Yo, yo"is the 7th letter of the Russian and Belarusian alphabets and the 9th letter of the Rusyn alphabet. It is also used in a number of non-Slavic alphabets based on the civil Cyrillic alphabet (for example, Mongolian, Kyrgyz, Udmurt and Chuvash).

If possible, it means the softness of the consonants, being after them, and the sound [o]; in all other cases it sounds like .
In native Russian words (in addition to words with the prefixes three- and four-), it is always under stress. Cases of unstressed use are rare, mainly these are borrowed words - for example, Königsberg surfers, complex words - loess-like or words with three- and four-prefixes - for example, four-part. Here the letter is phonetically equivalent to the unstressed “e”, “i”, “ya” or has a side stress, but can also reflect the characteristic features of writing in the source language.

In the Russian language (i.e., in Russian writing), the letter “е” stands, first of all, where the sound [(j)o] comes from [(j)e], this explains the form derived from “e” letters (borrowed from Western scripts). In Russian writing, unlike Belarusian, according to the rules for using letters, placing dots above the “е” is optional.

In other Slavic Cyrillic alphabet there is no letter “ё”. To indicate the corresponding sounds in writing in the Ukrainian and Bulgarian languages, after consonants they write “yo” and in other cases - “yo”. Serbian writing (and the Macedonian one based on it) generally does not have special letters for iotated vowels and/or softening the preceding consonant, since to distinguish syllables with a hard and soft consonant they use different consonants, and not different vowel letters, and iot is always written a separate letter.

In the Church and Old Church Slavonic alphabet there is no letter equivalent to “е”, since there are no such combinations of sounds; Russian “yokanye” is a common mistake when reading Church Slavonic texts.

Superscript element and its name

There is no generally accepted official term for the extension element present in the letter “e”. In traditional linguistics and pedagogy, the word “colon” was used, but most often in a hundred recent years used a less formal expression - “two dots”, or generally tried to avoid mentioning this element separately.

It is considered incorrect to use foreign language terms (dialytics, diaresis, trema or umlaut) in this situation, since they relate to diacritics and denote, first of all, a specific phonetic function.

Historical aspects

Introduction of Yo into use

For a long time, the sound combination (and after soft consonants - [o]), which appeared in Russian pronunciation, was not expressed in any way in writing. From the middle of the 18th century. they were designated by the letters IO, located under a common cap. But such a designation was cumbersome and was rarely used. The following variants were used: the signs o, iô, ьо, іо, ió.

In 1783, instead of the existing options, they proposed the letter “e”, borrowing from French, where it has a different meaning. However, it was first used in print only 12 years later (in 1795). The influence of the Swedish alphabet was also assumed.

In 1783, on November 29 (according to the old style - November 18) at the home of the head of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences, Princess E. R. Dashkova, one of the 1st meetings of the newly formed Russian Academy, where Fonvizin D.I., Knyazhnin Ya.B., Derzhavin G.R., Lepyokhin I.I., Metropolitan Gabriel and others were present. They discussed the draft full version explanatory dictionary(Slavic-Russian), subsequently - the famous 6-volume Dictionary of the Russian Academy.

The academicians were about to go home, like E.R. Dashkova asked if any of them could write the word “Christmas tree.” The learned men thought that the princess was joking, but she wrote the word “yolk”, which she had pronounced, and asked the question: “Is it legal to represent one sound with two letters?” She also noted: “These reprimands have already been introduced by custom, which, when it does not contradict common sense, should be followed in every possible way.” Ekaterina Dashkova suggested using the “newborn” letter “e” “to express words and reprimands, with this consent, beginning as matiory, iolka, iozh, iol.”

She turned out to be convincing in her arguments, and Gabriel, Metropolitan of Novgorod and St. Petersburg, who is a member of the Academy of Sciences, was asked to evaluate the rationality of introducing a new letter. So, in 1784, on November 18, the official recognition of the letter “e” took place.

The princess's innovative idea was supported by a number of leading cultural figures of that period, incl. and Derzhavin, who was the first to use “ё” for personal correspondence. And the first printed publication in which the appearance of the letter “е” was noticed was in 1795 the book “And My Trinkets” by I. Dmitriev, published by the Moscow University Printing House of H. A. Claudia and H. Riediger (in this printing house since 1788 published the newspaper “Moskovskie Vedomosti”, and it was located on the site of the present building of the Central Telegraph).

The first word printed with the letter “ё” became “everything”, then “vasilyochik”, “penek”, “light”, “immortal”. For the first time, a surname with this letter (“Potemkin”) was printed by G. R. Derzhavin in 1798.

The letter “e” became famous thanks to N.M. Karamzin, so until recently he was considered its author, until the story outlined above received wide publicity. In 1796, in the first book of the anthology of poems “Aonids”, published by Karamzin, who came out of the same university printing house, the words “dawn”, “moth”, “eagle”, “tears” were printed with the letter “e”. ", and the 1st verb is "flowed".

It’s just not clear whether this was Karamzin’s personal idea or the initiative of some employee of the publishing house. It should be noted that Karamzin scientific works(for example, in the famous “History of the Russian State” (1816 - 1829)) did not use the letter “ё”.

Distribution issues

Although the letter “е” was proposed to be introduced in 1783, and was used in print in 1795, for a long time it was not considered a separate letter and it was not officially introduced into the alphabet. This is very typical for newly introduced letters: the status of the symbol “th” was the same; it (in comparison with “e”) became mandatory for use back in 1735. In his “Russian Spelling”, Academician J. K. Grot noted, that both of these letters “should also occupy a place in the alphabet,” but for a long time this remained only a good wish.

In the XVIII-XIX centuries. An obstacle to the spread of the letter “е” was the then attitude towards such a “yocking” pronunciation as petty-bourgeois speech, the dialect of the “vile rabble,” while the “yokking” “church” pronunciation was considered more noble, intelligent and cultural (with a “yocking” "Fought, for example, V.K. Trediakovsky and A.P. Sumarokov).

12/23/1917 (01/05/1918) a decree was published (undated) signed by the Soviet People's Commissar of Education A.V. Lunacharsky, who introduced reformed spelling as mandatory, it said, among other things: “To recognize the use of the letter “е” as desirable, but not mandatory. "

Thus, the letters “ё” and “й” formally entered the alphabet (having received serial numbers) only in Soviet times (if you do not take into account the “New ABC” (1875) by Leo Tolstoy, where there was the letter “ё" between " e" and yatem, in 31st place).

On December 24, 1942, the use of the letter “e” by order of the People’s Commissar of Education of the RSFSR was introduced into compulsory school practice, and since then (sometimes, however, they remember 1943 and even 1956, when spelling normative rules were first published) it is considered officially included in the Russian alphabet .

The next 10 years scientific and fiction was published with almost complete use of the letter “е”, and then the publishers returned to the old practice: using the letter only when absolutely necessary.

There is a legend that Joseph Stalin influenced the popularization of the letter “ё”. It says that in 1942, on December 6, I.V. An order was brought to Stalin for signature, where the names of a number of generals were printed not with the letter “ё”, but with “e”. Stalin was angry, and the next day all the articles in the Pravda newspaper suddenly appeared with the letter “e”.

On July 9, 2007, Russian Minister of Culture A. S. Sokolov, giving an interview to the Mayak radio station, expressed his opinion on the need to use the letter “e” in written speech.

Basic rules for using the letter “ё” /Legislative acts

On December 24, 1942, the People's Commissar of Education of the RSFSR V.P. Potemkin, by order No. 1825, introduced the letter “Ё,ё” into mandatory practice. Shortly before the order was issued, an incident occurred when Stalin treated rudely the manager of the Council of People's Commissars, Ya. Chadayev, because on December 6 (or 5), 1942, he brought him a decree for signature, where the names of a number of generals were printed without the letter “e”.

Chadayev informed the editor of Pravda that the leader wanted to see “ё” in print. Thus, already on December 7, 1942, the newspaper issue suddenly came out with this letter in all articles.

Federal Law No. 53-FZ “On state language Russian Federation» dated 06/01/2005 in part 3 of Art. 1 states that when using Russian modern literary language as the state language, the Government of the Russian Federation determines the procedure for approving the rules and norms of Russian punctuation and spelling.

The Decree of the Government of the Russian Federation “On the procedure for approving the norms of the modern Russian literary language when used as the state language of the Russian Federation, the rules of Russian spelling and punctuation” dated November 23, 2006 No. 714 establishes that, based on the recommendations given by the Interdepartmental Commission on the Russian Language, a list reference books, grammars and dictionaries, which contain the norms of the modern Russian literary language, when it is used in the Russian Federation as the state language, as well as the rules of Russian punctuation and spelling, are approved by the Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation.

Letter No. AF-159/03 dated 05/03/2007 “On the decisions of the Interdepartmental Commission on the Russian Language” of the Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation prescribes writing the letter “e” in case of probability of misreading words, for example, in proper names, since in In this case, ignoring the letter “е” violates the requirements of the Federal Law “On the State Language of the Russian Federation.”

According to the current rules of Russian punctuation and spelling, the letter ё is used selectively in texts during normal printing. But, at the request of the editor or author, any book can be printed using the letter e sequentially.

The sound of "Yo"

The letter "ё" is used:

To convey the stressed vowel [o] and at the same time indicate the softness of the previous consonant: youth, comb, crawl, oats, lying, during the day, honey, dog, everything, trudged, Fedor, aunt (after g, k, x this is only used for borrowing : Höglund, Goethe, liqueur, Cologne, the only exception is actually Russian word weave, weave, weave, weave with derivatives, and formed in Russian from the borrowed word panicer);

To convey the accent [o] after hissing words: silk, zhzhem, click, damn (in this position, the conditions for choosing between writing with “o” or with “e” are set by a rather complex system of lists of exception words and rules);

To convey the combination of [j] and the percussive sound [o]:

At the beginning of the words: container, hedgehog, Christmas tree;

After consonants (a separating sign is used): volume, viet, linen.

After the vowel letters: her, loan, striker, tip, spit, forges;

In native Russian words, only the stressed sound “ё” is possible (even if the stress is collateral: loess-like, four-story, three-seater); if, during word formation or inflection, the stress moves to another syllable, then “е” will be replaced with “e” (takes - will choose, honey - honey - on honey, about what - about nothing (but: about nothing )).

Along with the letter “е” in borrowings, the same sound meaning can be conveyed after consonants - the combination ё and in other cases - yo. Also in borrowings “ё” can be an unstressed vowel.

Yo and E

§ 10 of the “Rules of Russian Spelling and Punctuation”, officially in force since 1956, defines the cases when “ё” is used in writing:

"1. When it is necessary to prevent incorrect reading and understanding of a word, for example: we recognize as opposed to learn; everything is different from everything; bucket as opposed to bucket; perfect (participle) as opposed to perfect (adjective), etc.

2. When you need to indicate the pronunciation of a little-known word, for example: Olekma river.

3. In special texts: primers, school textbooks of the Russian language, spelling textbooks, etc., as well as in dictionaries to indicate the place of stress and correct pronunciation
Note. In foreign words, at the beginning of words and after vowels, instead of the letter ё, yo is written, for example; iodine, district, major."

§ 5 of the new edition of these rules (published in 2006 and approved by the Spelling Commission of the Russian Academy of Sciences) regulates these issues in more detail:

“The use of the letter ё can be consistent and selective.
Consistent use of the letter ё is mandatory in the following types of printed texts:

a) in texts with sequentially placed accent marks;

b) in books addressed to young children;

c) in educational texts for schoolchildren junior classes and foreigners studying Russian.

Note 1. The sequential use of ё is adopted for the illustrative part of these rules.

Note 3. In dictionaries, words with the letter e are placed in the general alphabet with the letter e, for example: barely, unctuous, fir-tree, spruce, elozit, fir-tree, fir-tree, spruce; to have fun, to have fun, gaiety, cheerful, fun.

In ordinary printed texts, the letter е is used selectively. It is recommended to use it in the following cases.

1. To prevent incorrect identification of a word, for example: everything, sky, summer, perfect (in contrast to the words everything, sky, summer, perfect), including to indicate the place of stress in the word, for example: bucket, we recognize (unlike a bucket, let’s find out).

2. To indicate the correct pronunciation of a word - either rare, not well known, or widespread incorrect pronunciation, e.g.: gyozy, surfing, fleur, harder, slit, including to indicate the correct stress, e.g.: fable, brought, carried away, condemned, newborn, filler.

3. In proper names - surnames, geographical names, for example: Konenkov, Neyolova, Catherine Deneuve, Schrödinger, Dezhnev, Koshelev, Chebyshev, Veshenskaya, Olekma.”

“Yo”, “yo” and “yo” in borrowed words and the transfer of foreign proper names

The letter “е” is often used to convey the sounds [ø] and [œ] (for example, denoted by the letter “ö”) in foreign names and words.

In borrowed words, the letter combinations “jo” or “yo” are usually used to record combinations of phonemes such as /jo/:

After consonants, at the same time softening them ("broth", "battalion", "mignon", "guillotine", "senor", "champignon", "pavilion", "fjord", "companion", etc.) - in Romance languages usually in places after palatalized [n] and [l] “о” is written.

At the beginning of words ("iota", "iodine", "yogurt", "yoga", "York", etc.) or after vowels ("district", "coyote", "meiosis", "major", etc.) spelled “yo”;

However, in recent decades, “ё” has been increasingly used in these cases. It has already become a normative element in the systems of transferring titles and names (transliteration sense) from a number of Asian languages (for example, the Kontsevich system for the Korean language and the Polivanov system for the Japanese language): Yoshihito, Shogun, Kim Yongnam.

In European borrowings, the sound is conveyed by the letter “е” very rarely; it is most often found in words from the languages of Scandinavia (Jörmungand, Jötun), but, as a rule, it exists along with the usual transmission through “yo” (for example, Jörmungand) and is often considered non-normative.

“Ё” in borrowed words is often unstressed and in this position its pronunciation is indistinguishable from the letters “I”, “i” or “e” (Erdős, shogunate, etc.), i.e., its original clarity is lost and it sometimes turns into just an indication of a certain pronunciation in the source language.

Consequences of not using the letter “ё”

The slowness of the entry of the letter “е” into the practice of writing (which, by the way, never fully took place) is explained by its inconvenient form for cursive writing, which contradicts its main principle - the unity (without tearing the pen from the sheet of paper) of the style, as well as the technical difficulties of technology publishing houses of pre-computer times.

In addition, people with last names with the letter “е” often have difficulties, sometimes insurmountable, when preparing various documents, since some workers are irresponsible when writing this letter. This problem became especially acute after the introduction of the Unified State Examination system, when there is a danger of differences in the spelling of the name in the passport and in the Certificate of Unified State Examination results.

The habitual optionality of use led to the erroneous reading of a number of words, which gradually became generally accepted. This process affected everything: both a huge number of personal names and numerous common nouns.

Stable ambiguity is caused by words written without the letter e such as: piece of iron, everything, flax, let's take a break, blowjob (will fly by without hitting you), perfect, planted, in summer, recognize, palate, tapeworm, admits, etc. are increasingly used erroneous pronunciation (without ё) and shifting stress in the words beet, newborn, etc.

"e" turns into "e"

The ambiguity contributed to the fact that sometimes the letter “е” began to be used in writing (and, naturally, read [`o]) in those words where it should not be. For example, instead of the word “grenadier” - “grenadier”, and instead of the word “scam” - “scam”, also instead of the word “guardianship” - “guardianship”, and instead of the word “being” - “being”, etc. Sometimes such incorrect pronunciation and spelling become common.

Thus, the famous chess player Alexander Alekhine, world champion, was, in fact, Alekhine and was very indignant if his last name was pronounced and spelled incorrectly. His surname belongs to the noble family of Alekhins and is not derived from the familiar variable “Alyokha” from the name Alexey.

In those positions where it is necessary to be not ё, but е, it is recommended to place an accent in order to prevent incorrect recognition of words (everyone, takes) or erroneous pronunciation (grenadier, scam, Croesus, stout, Olesha).

Due to the spelling of words without e in the 20-30s. XX century Many errors arose in the pronunciation of those words that people learned from newspapers and books, and not from colloquial speech: musketeer, youth, driver (these words said “e” instead of “e”).

Orthoepy: the emergence of new variants

Due to the optional use of the letter “е”, words have appeared in the Russian language that allow the possibility of being written with both the letter “e” and “е”, and the corresponding pronunciation. For example, faded and faded, maneuver and maneuver, whitish and whitish, bile and bile, etc.

Such variants constantly appear in the language due to the action of contradictory analogies. For example, the word nadsekshiy has variants of pronunciation with e/e due to the double motivation: notch/notch. The use or non-use of the letter “ё” does not matter here. But, developing naturally, a literary language, as a rule, tends to eliminate variants: either one of them will become non-literary, incorrect (golo[l`o]ditsa, iz[d`e]vka), or pronunciation variants will acquire different meanings (is[ t`o]kshiy - is[t`e]kshiy) .

It is preferably pronounced not “glider”, but “glider” (stressed 1st syllable), since the following trends exist in the Russian language: in the names of mechanisms, machines, and various devices, stress is preferable on the 1st syllable, or more precisely, on the penultimate one , i.e., glider, trireme, glider, tanker, and on the last one - when indicating the character: combine operator, driver, watchman.

Inconsistency in the use of the letter “е” is an artificial rather than a natural factor. And it helps to slow down the natural development of the language, giving rise to and maintaining pronunciation options that are not determined by intralingual reasons.

The ancient science of numbers will help every person see their true purpose in life. Sofia numerology considers the first and last name as a special code. Having deciphered it, you will understand what your undeniable talent is for. This helps in choosing a profession or hobby, and for some it can help radically change their life. The number of a name is easy to find out from the numerological alphabet. If you are ready for change, surprise yourself with this information.

The secret of the name will reveal not only your abilities, you can find out what the soul of the child, your soulmate, lies in.

This ancient knowledge can make life easier and guide a person along the right path. The letters have their own meaning, and it can make the owner of the name the happiest of people. If a person changes his first or last name, then his fate will also change - do not forget about this.

Numerology of fate

About what is hidden in numbers greatest secret The universe has known for a long time. Many scientists have devoted their lives to numerology, and this science is half exact, half mystical. Letters have their own magic, which will be revealed only to those who are ready to plunge headlong into this secret knowledge. Letters surround us, first of all - our first and last name. Parents choose names that are pleasant to hear, sometimes completely incredible, invented ones.

Are they doing the right thing or not? The set of letters gives the number of the name, and it determines its future life and destiny. Be sure to check which first name along with the last name will give your baby a lucky destiny. If you have been living with your name for a long time, then find out how it can help you. Each of us has talents, hidden skills. We don’t always know about them, but if we develop them, our talents can bring us not only satisfaction, but also fame, fame, and money.

For any alphabet you can calculate a numerological chart. Find out everything about yourself, your loved ones and friends. All you need is your full name, middle name and last name. If your friend is from a country that doesn't use middle names, just put the father's full name for calculations. This is important, because the patronymic is a kind of guiding beacon connecting your life and the fate of your parents. In the most intimate lies the answer to your question “Who am I?”

What's in a name

Different names - different destinies. Repeating the same name in a family many times is a mistake. All its positive qualities, of course, are preserved, but the negative ones become a generic trait. Here, unfortunately:

alcoholism, drug addiction;
addiction to gambling;
tendency to cheat;
aggressiveness, criminal tendencies.

It is better to introduce new names - they will become a stream of fresh air for you and your descendants. Diversity and a mixture of cultures benefits your family. An unusual name can be very lucky. Calculate its meaning using the Russian alphabet. In the Latin layout it may give a different meaning.

ABC matters a lot

The alphabet is important, because a child or an adult will write it and sign it many times. The name is on passports, passes, and personal documents. It also gives them a special destiny. It is believed that people with long, sonorous names are always happier. This is not necessarily the case, because we consider a name as a combination of the first name, patronymic and surname. Essentially, these are three names: your own, your father’s, the whole family’s.

Tables of values

Everything has already been calculated, a table has been compiled for each alphabet. All you have to do is substitute the value - it's not difficult. The calculations are simple, anyone can do them.

Meanings of the Russian alphabet (Cyrillic)

1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9
A	B	IN	G	D	E	Yo	AND	Z
AND	Y	TO	L	M	N	ABOUT	P	R
WITH	T	U	F	X	C	H	Sh	SCH
Kommersant	Y	b	E	YU	I

They should be used in this order. Combinations of letters and numbers will give you the final number. If you have already done calculations for classical numerology, then you know how to do this. If not, then an example will tell you.

Latin alphabet meanings

1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9
A	B	C	D	E	F	G	H	I
J	K	L	M	N	O	P	Q	R
S	T	U	V	W	X	Y	Z

The numerology chart for the Latin alphabet is no different. The calculations are carried out in exactly the same way.

Name number counting

NICHOLAY 6+1+3+7+4+1+2=33=3+3=6

VASILIEVICH 3+1+1+1+4+3+6+3+1+7=66=6+6=12=3

GOGOL 4+7+4+7+4+3=29=2+9=11=2

We got three numbers. Each of them has an important letter meaning that can be considered separately. To find out the final value, add three numbers:

Here it is, number that determines fate of this person. In the same way, numerology allows you to choose a name for a child. You already have a last name and, most likely, a middle name. Choose the perfect combination. True, this method can deprive your baby of something important - a gift from Fortune. Parents are mainly guided by their feelings about the name, and not by counting letters. This gives the child a chance to gain an unexpected talent.

Decoding the number of the name

The alphabet is important, but essentially it is only needed to obtain this meaning. This numerology tool has been used since ancient times.

1

The man does not take a step back. His whole life is a constant movement towards his intended goal. Have you met such people? All they have on their mind is what they love. It could be a hobby that has become a job. It’s hard with them, no one argues. But pay attention - their idea always exceeds expectations. A person with number 1 always gets things done. Most likely, he chose the profession of a lawyer, economist, investment specialist, or is involved in high technology. Less often, these people are doctors and politicians. Number 1 is difficult for its owner; it does not allow one to deviate from the planned path towards relationships, unnecessary feelings, and experiences.

Units are people of action

2

The number of letters in the name is 2. A person strives for harmony in life. But he cannot achieve it. He is always unhappy, he always wants to get something better. People often suffer from health problems, especially mental ones. It seems that he lives only the life he knows. Always a lot of plans, prone to creative activity. the paintings are only half painted, everything is not completed. It is part of his nature to quickly become disillusioned with the results of his labors before he has even seen the results. It happens that once they are lucky - they receive recognition, applause, fame. All life is a reminder of that moment. It's hard, you'll agree. Poets, artists, researchers - this is their purpose.

3

For Threes, the main thing is stability and balance.

Stable personalities with name number 3. The numerological alphabet shows 3 when a person knows how to find harmony in his existence. Three is the first of the numbers of harmony; it indicates that a person has achieved balance in the spiritual, material and personal terms. He knows how to be different at the same time, change, adapt to circumstances. He will find a place in almost any field of activity, but most often - doctors, designers, teachers. Moreover, they are very successful in their business. One can only envy people with name number 3, because they find a path through life that leads on a straight path.

4

Four is the second stable number. It characterizes 4 elements. The harmony of that number is colossal, so a person knows how to not only improve his own life, but also bring balance to the lives of other people. Most often these are social professions, psychology, massage, people working with children. If this is your number, then you have probably noticed that animals love you very much, people are drawn to you, children always smile. This inner ability of yours to give is visible from afar. A positive person with great potential.

5

Fives need to control themselves

Five is a very dangerous number. It indicates that a person often deviates from his intended plan. There is an urge to give up everything, start something new, come up with another project. He needs constant supervision. In childhood it’s the parents, and then? The person is an adult, but children's problems still remain. He wants to occupy a leadership position, but it is difficult to do so, and if he succeeds, failure is inevitable. The alphabet of your name suggests that you simply need to take hold of yourself with both hands. Make plans, schedules, keep a diary. This will help you concentrate.

6

The third harmonious number, consisting of two triplets or 2 and 4. Those who possess it are very lucky. Often names that give 6 are specifically given to children. A person is at the epicenter of events, but does not lose his head; concentrated when needed, and after that - can relax and have fun; knows exactly how to distribute her time and love between family, friends, work, and personal life. The positive number 6 is capable of many things. These are good drivers, first of all. Chooses 6 professions legal specialties, cooking, excellent at numbers.

7

Seven is the number of an adventurer. Very often these people cannot hold money in their hands. They literally burn your pocket. There is a great danger of becoming addicted to gambling. It seems that the wheel of Fortune is turning towards you, here it is - the long-awaited success. The lucky period quickly passes, and it is simply impossible to catch up with Fortune. Along with gambling comes a passion for waste and useless purchases. Pay attention to what you spend your money on; it may very well be that it flows away so quickly precisely because of your inability to spend. This person definitely shouldn’t work where there is cash.

Gambling Sevens are always on the move

8

Eight indicates that the alphabet of your name is harmonious, although it has its own problems. Man is fixated on the material world. Things, objects, money, income mean too much to you. You are completely absorbed in your material life, and have not thought about the spiritual sphere for a long time. We are talking not only about the religious aspect, but also simply about a good rest and values. Traveling outside the city is a pleasure from nature and clean air. A good book is an impression, a fantasy, a dream. Lunch with old friends - laughter, emotions, fun. All this makes life richer spiritually. Why not? You are used to working, thinking about your family, solving problems. Who will think of you? Such a person succeeded as an administrator, business leader, political scientist, and university professor.

9

Nines are prophets among people

Sofia numerology agrees with classical numerology here. People with number 9 are messengers of heaven. They came into the world with a specific purpose and carry their burden for as long as necessary. Their path is always clear, because the Angels guide a person with a nine. He knows exactly where to step, where to turn, what to do next. How? Don't ask, just believe in him. His mission is not easy for him, but he is a sign - if not him, then no one will be able to do it. The most beautiful thing is that after its completion, he feels unprecedented freedom. What was supposed to happen, he fulfilled the Divine destiny. What will happen next? Maybe, new plan waiting for him, but for now - a little rest.

Change of first and last name

Now it's fashionable to change your name. A person can choose an exotic name for himself, or, on the contrary, change it to a simpler one. This is good, because together with him we can change our fate. Always approach the change process intelligently if you decide. Changing letters will change your name number, and with it new talents may come. Unfortunately, something old will definitely go away.

Another situation with changing the surname. Women do this often, just to maintain the tradition and please their husband. If you see that a new surname will bring you trouble, it is better not to change it. The numerological alphabet allows you to calculate everything possible options. Why not, maybe your husband will want to change his last name in this case?

Fate is in your hands. Fortunately, you can influence the number of the name. If you think that:

fate treats you too harshly;
you can't do anything;
Relationships, love, friendship don’t work out.

Think about it, maybe it's the name? Of course, in order to decide to change your name, you need a very compelling reason, the presence of all these points at once, for example. Changing names is exciting, but not always beneficial. You can't get confused by fate. A change is possible only once in a lifetime; it cannot be done more often.

The modern Russian alphabet consists of 33 letters. The alphabet in its current form has existed since 1942. In fact, the year 1918 can be considered the year of the formation of the modern Russian alphabet - then it consisted of 32 letters (without the letter ё). Origin of the alphabet, according to historical documents, is associated with the names Cyril and Methodius and dates back to the 9th century AD. From its origin until 1918, the alphabet changed several times, adding and excluding characters. At one time it consisted of more than 40 letters. The Russian alphabet is also sometimes called the Russian alphabet.

Russian alphabet

On our website for each letter of the Russian alphabet there is a separate page with detailed description, examples of words, pictures, poems, riddles. They can be printed or downloaded. Click on the desired letter to go to her page.

A a B b C c D d E d e e e f f g h h i i j j K k L l M m N n O o P p R r S s T t U u F f X x C t H h Sh sh sch q y y b ee y y I

Often in written speech the letter e is used instead of the letter е. In most cases, the replacement does not cause difficulties for the reader, but in some contexts it is necessary to use the letter ё to avoid ambiguity. Russian letters are a neuter noun. It is worth considering that the style of letters depends on the font.

Russian alphabet

In some logical tasks to determine the next element in a series, in games when solving comic ciphers, in competitions for knowledge of the alphabet and in other similar cases, you need to know the serial numbers of the letters of the Russian alphabet, including numbers when counting from the end to the beginning of the alphabet. Our visual “strip” will help you quickly determine the number of a letter in the alphabet.

A
1
33
B
2
32
IN
3
31
G
4
30
D
5
29
E
6
28
Yo
7
27
AND
8
26
Z
9
25
AND
10
24
Y
11
23
TO
12
22
L
13
21
M
14
20
N
15
19
ABOUT
16
18
P
17
17

R
18
16
WITH
19
15
T
20
14
U
21
13
F
22
12
X
23
11
C
24
10
H
25
9
Sh
26
8
SCH
27
7
Kommersant
28
6
Y
29
5
b
30
4
E
31
3
YU
32
2
I
33
1

Russian alphabet

Frequent questions about the letters of the Russian alphabet are: how many letters are in the alphabet, which of them are vowels and consonants, which are called uppercase and which are lowercase? Basic information about letters is often found in popular questions for students primary classes, in tests of erudition and determination of IQ level, in questionnaires for foreigners on knowledge of the Russian language and other similar tasks.

Number of letters

How many letters are in the Russian alphabet?

There are 33 letters in the Russian alphabet.

To remember the number of letters in the Russian alphabet, some people associate them with popular phrases: “33 pleasures”, “33 misfortunes”, “33 cows”. Other people associate with facts from their lives: I live in apartment number 33, I live in region 33 ( Vladimir region), I play in the team number 33 and the like. And if the number of letters of the alphabet is forgotten again, then associated phrases help to remember it. It will probably help you too?!

Vowels and consonants

How many vowels and consonants are there in the Russian alphabet?

10 vowels + 21 consonants + 2 do not mean sound

Among the letters of the Russian alphabet are:

10 vowels: a, o, u, s, e, i, e, e, yu, and;
21 consonant letters: b, v, g, d, j, g, z, k, l, m, n, p, r, s, t, f, x, c, h, w, sch;
2 letters that do not mean sounds: ь, ъ.

The letter means sound. Compare: “ka”, “el” - names of letters, [k], [l] - sounds.

Uppercase and lowercase

Which letters are uppercase and which are lowercase?

Letters can be uppercase (or capital) and lowercase:

A, B, V... E, Yu, Z - capital letters,
a, b, c... e, yu, i - lowercase letters.

Sometimes they say: large and small letters. But this formulation is incorrect, since it means the size of the letter, and not its style. Compare:
B is a large capital letter, B is a small capital letter, b is a large lowercase letter, b is a small lowercase letter.

Proper names, the beginning of sentences, and “you” are written with a capital letter as an expression of deep respect. In computer programs, the term "letter case" is used. Capital letters are typed in uppercase, lowercase letters are typed in lowercase.

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Letter- This is a written sign with the help of which a certain sound is indicated. The same letter can mean different sounds. For example, the letter G in a word all around denotes the sound [g], and in the word circle- sound [k].

All letters used in written speech and arranged in a conventional order are called alphabet.

The Russian alphabet contains 33 letters. Letters are divided into large (capital) - A, T, F, and small (lowercase) - a, t, f. Each letter has a name: A- A, T- te, L- ale, TO- ka and so on, a certain place in the alphabet and its own style, distinguishing it from other letters.

Russian alphabet

Russian alphabet with transcription of letters:

printed	capitals	Transcription	printed	capitals	Transcription
Letters		Transcription	Letters		Transcription
A a	A a	[A]	R r	R r	[er]
B b	B b	[bae]	With with	With with	[es]
In in	In in	[ve]	T t	T t	[te]
G g	G g	[ge]	U y	U y	[y]
D d	D d	[de]	F f	F f	[ef]
Her	Her	[th"e]	X x	X x	[Ha]
Her	Her	[th "o]	Ts ts	Ts ts	[tse]
F	F	[zhe]	H h	H h	[che]
Z z	Z z	[ze]	Sh sh	Sh sh	[sha]
And and	And and	[And]	sch sch	sch sch	[sha]
Thy	Thy	and short [th"]	Kommersant	Kommersant	solid sign
K k	K k	[ka]	s s	s s	[s]
L l	L l	[el"]	b b	b b	soft sign
Mm	Mm	[Em]	Uh uh	Uh uh	[e]
N n	N n	[en]	Yu Yu	Yu Yu	[th"y]
Oh oh	Oh oh	[O]	I I	I I	[th "a]
P p	P p	[pe]

Block and capital letters

Each letter has two types of style: printed and capital. Block letters are used in books, on websites, and so on. Capital letters are written by hand, that is, they are handwritten.

A a, D d, M m - block letters

A a, D d, M m- capital letters

The division of letters into printed and capital letters is quite arbitrary, since on the one hand there are fonts that imitate capital writing, on the other hand there are people who are more comfortable writing printed letters rather than writing in capitals.

Consonants and vowels of the alphabet

The Russian alphabet contains 33 letters, of which 10 are vowels:

a, e, e, i, o, u, s, e, yu, i

21 consonants:

b, c, d, e, g, h, j, j, l, m, n

p, r, s, t, f, x, c, h, w, sch

The concept of the alphabet, its main characteristics.

Writing styles. Typography.

Stages of formation of the Russian alphabet.

One of the main factors of phonemographic writing is alphabet– a set of letters arranged in the order accepted for a given writing system. The alphabet is characterized by the composition (number of letters) and the order of the letters in the list; it determines the style of the letters, their names and sound meanings.

The word "alphabet" is of Greek origin: it is composed of two Greek words - "alpha" and "vita (beta)" (α and β), in Latin "alphabetum". The Arabic word "alifba" is composed on the same principle. In the Russian language, the word “alphabet” is used, compiled from the name of the first letters of the Cyrillic alphabet: A - “az” and B - “buki”.

An ideal alphabet should consist of as many letters as there are phonemes in a given language. However, there are no ideal alphabets today, because writing has evolved over a long history, and much in writing reflects outdated traditions. There are alphabets that are more or less rational. Alphabetic characters (letters) can convey one sound (in Russian the letters I, O, T, R), but can convey two or more sounds (in Russian the letters E, Ts [ts]). On the other hand, one sound can be represented by two or more letters, for example in English language combinations of letters TH, SH, CH convey one sound each. Finally, there may be letters that do not convey sounds at all: in Russian these are the letters Ъ and ь.

Modern Russian alphabet consists of 33 letters. There are 10 vowel letters: A, I, O, U, Y, E, E, Yo, Yu, Ya; consonants -21: B, V, G, D, ZH, Z, J, K, L, M, N, P, R, S, T, F, X, C, Ch, Sh, Sh. Letters b, b sounds are not indicated.

Lettering. There is no natural connection between the shape of a letter and its sound meaning; this connection is arbitrary, which turns the letter into symbol sound. The arbitrariness of the letter outline is confirmed by changes in the outline of the letters while the meaning is stable. For example, Ѩ eventually turned into I.

Meanwhile, the style of letters is an active characteristic of the alphabet, since it determines appearance writing, its convenience and inconvenience, the speed of writing and reading, the effectiveness of teaching both. The outline of a letter is a material carrier of its meaning, i.e. knowledge of the external appearance of a letter is a necessary condition for correct writing and reading. When drawing a letter, it is important to take into account both the interests of the writer and the interests of the reader. For the writer, simplicity of style is important, on which the speed of writing depends. For the reader, clarity and contrast in the appearance of the letter are important. The evolution of the external side of the alphabet - the shape of the letters - is connected precisely with these functions of the letter styles.

In addition, based on the handwriting and the general appearance of the letter, the time and place of creation of the written monument can be determined. The material side of writing is dealt with by the applied historical discipline - paleography(from Greek palaios "ancient").

The letters do not have a single descriptive pattern, but there are four varieties of each letter with two pairwise non-overlapping groupings: printed uppercase and lowercase; handwritten uppercase and lowercase. For example: A, a, A, a; T, t, T, t.;

Modern letters, based on the method of reproduction and design, are divided into written And printed. The designs of modern written letters were formed on the basis of the designs of the letters of the Slavic script. The foundations of the printed font were laid by the reform of Peter I.

Uppercase(large, capital) and lowercase(small) have their own history. Descriptive varieties of these letters began to appear in written monuments of the 16th century. The allocation of capital letters into a separate subalphabet was first noted in the primers of the 17th century. The use of capital letters was streamlined after the introduction of the Peter the Great civil alphabet.

The differences between uppercase and lowercase letters manifest themselves in three positions:

1) difference in size. This is reflected in the title (large and small), it is very important for reading, because large letters stand out against the background of small ones and serve as a support, a guide for the overall coverage of the text, highlighting its individual fragments;

2) difference in style. It does not apply to all letter characters, but to printed subalphabets of only four letters: A - a, B - b, E - e, E - e;

3) functional distinctions. They are the most significant components; spelling deals with this (see lecture 7). There are no functional differences in the letters ы, ь, Ъ.

Letter order in the alphabet is one of the characteristics of the alphabet, since the distinctive feature of any alphabet is its orderliness. The generally accepted arrangement of letters in the alphabet is arbitrary and has no connection with the letter itself and the phonetic side of the language. The place of a letter in the alphabet does not depend on its frequency. It was calculated that the most common letters are O, E (together with E), A, I, T, and the least used letters are Ш, Ц, ШЧ, Ф, Е.

On the one hand, the order of letters is the passive side of the modern alphabet, since it has no direct relation to the practice of writing. In order to write and read correctly, there is no need to know in what order the letters follow each other. This knowledge has general cultural significance. On the other hand, place in the alphabet is the most important characteristic of a letter, since it is determined by place, serial number (M is the fourteenth letter in the Russian alphabet). In speech practice, knowledge of the order of letters is necessary when using reference literature, since the headings in dictionaries are arranged in accordance with the so-called strict alphabet, i.e. the place in the alphabet is taken into account first by the first letters of the word, then by the second, etc. For example, in the dictionary the word will be listed first lamp, Then - doe.

Letter names are very essential in the writing system, because establishes their meaning. The names of Russian letters are built on the acrophonic principle: the meaning of a letter is the extreme sound of its name (from the Greek akros "extreme"). This may be the first sound of the name (initial type) - “de” - [d], “ka” - [k], “che” - [h]; the last sound (final type) – “er” - [r], “es” - [s], “ef” - [f]; the whole name (global type) is “a” - [a], “e” -, “yu” -. Thus, the name of a letter is directly related to its basic meaning, without which correct writing and reading are impossible.

The modern name of the letter is an indeclinable neuter noun, so it is correct to say “graceful” A", "big R".

Knowing the names is necessary to correctly read letter abbreviations: FSB[efsbe], ATS[atees], UMPO [uempeo]. They are taken into account in the formulation of spelling rules; it is impossible to do without the names of letters in textbooks and scientific works. Knowing the names of letters is also associated with speech culture. Errors in the names of letters (“re” instead of “er”, “cha” instead of “che”) are perceived as a gross violation of the norms of the literary language. The use of the correct letter names is an indicator of the level of a person’s general culture.

Alphabetical meaning of letters- This base value letters, its original function. The alphabetic value is contrasted with the positional value of the letter. For example: letter ABOUT in a word Here means [o], in a word noses- [Λ], in nasal- [ъ], letter E in a word eating has meaning in the word we eat- , V weight- [`e], in scales- [`i e], in bike- [`ь], in karate- [uh]. However, it is clear to everyone who reads and writes in Russian that one of these meanings is basic (alphabetic) - the one that is acquired when learning the alphabet, the rest represent positional meanings. The alphabetic meaning is established regardless of the conditions of use; it is the basis for the formation of the meanings of letters, determined by graphics and spelling.

Writing style is a speech act considered from the point of view of its graphic execution in a written text. Being a significant characteristic of written speech and forming one whole with it, writing styles are divided into certain categories. The general requirements applicable to any manuscript include mastery of the skills of correct, aesthetically perfect writing, or the art calligraphy- mastery of writing characters. There are two main trends in the art of calligraphy: 1) perfect adherence to the standard rules of written characters; 2) the formation of an individual (personal) handwriting.

Handwriting refers not only to an individual style of writing, but also to a general style of writing that is characteristic of all writers of a certain historical period.

Personal, perfect handwriting that claims calligraphic significance is relatively poorly developed in the European tradition. The formation of calligraphically significant personal handwriting in Europe begins with the time of printing (XV century), when they began to be contrasted with standard printed letters as individual versus general. In the hieroglyphic cultures of the East, on the contrary, personal handwriting appears very early, and calligraphic art reaches high perfection. It should be borne in mind that personal handwriting always carries the spirit of its creator, expressing in a certain way some features of his personality, like individual features of pronunciation in oral speech.

The change in letter styles was associated with a change in supra-individual handwritings (charter, semi-charter, cursive), and then with the introduction of printing, the introduction of a civil font, followed by a change in cursive handwriting and printed fonts.

In the case of standard characters in Greek and Latin, as well as Slavic graphics, three standard styles of execution were gradually established:

1) charter - the complete style of marking;

2) cursive - shortened style of writing characters

3) semi-ustav - average (mixed) style of marking.

This division of styles is characteristic of all cultures. In Egyptian writing they correspond to hieroglyphic, democratic and hieratic writing, in Chinese hieroglyphs - zhenshu, caoshu and jianbizi.

The charter (from the beginning of writing to the middle of the 16th century) was characterized by a clear, calligraphic style. Words were not separated by spaces, and word abbreviations were rarely used. Each letter was written separately from the others, without connections or slanting, and had shapes close to geometric. The height and width of the letters were approximately the same. Therefore, the charter was easy to read, but difficult for the writer.

The semi-ustav (from the middle of the 14th century to the 17th century) differed from the charter in the less strictness of the lettering. Letters in their parts can form three rows of writing: the line itself, the superscript row and the subscript rows. Half-characters are placed in the middle line, and behind it are placed the superscript and subscript elements of the letter styles: loops, bows, etc. Sloping was allowed, letters became smaller and more elongated in height, titles (word abbreviations) and strengths (accent marks) were used. The semi-statut was written more fluently than the charter, but was more difficult to read. It moved from manuscripts to printed books from the time of Ivan Fedorov to Peter’s reforms; this was due to the desire of the first printers to give books a familiar appearance.

Cursive writing (from the end of the 14th century to the present day) is a coherent writing of letters, usually slanted to the right, with strokes extending beyond the top and bottom lines of the line. Initially it became widespread in diplomatic, clerical and trade correspondence.

Historically, charter is the earliest style of writing. The most solemn and official texts are executed in the statutory letter, and the least important ones are executed in cursive.

Typography is based on a new way of creating written characters. The essence of this method is to create a standard edition of handwritten text in terms of graphic design. The emergence and development of book printing is a complex and long historical process that had significant consequences for the spread and development of culture. The invention of printing cannot be attributed to any single person or nation. The basis for the creation of a printed book is the invention of paper by the Chinese in the 2nd century AD. e. Both a handwritten and a printed book can be equally embodied on paper. Following the invention of paper in the 7th-8th centuries. A printing press was created that was used to reproduce books. At first, the printing matrix was copper or wooden boards, on which the text was either cut out or etched with acid over handwritten text. From such a matrix, using a printing press, it was possible to create a certain edition of text. Books created from matrices are called xylographs; they were the main type of publication until the 15th century.

In the 15th century, Johann Guttenberg invented a type casting device and a typographic alloy - hart. This alloy was distinguished by its lightness and ductility - necessary qualities for creating a set. Europe thus became the birthplace of movable type printing. In the history of Russia, Ivan Fedorov became the first printer.

Printed speech develops directly from handwritten speech, changing the forms of existence of written speech, creating new qualities. It borrows linearity and the iconic principle of written language. However, writing signs change their shape in accordance with the conditions of machine production. In particular, the number and strict nomenclature of fonts are established. Modern typeface comes in a number of variations that are used to organize text in printed publications.

In the twentieth century, computers entered social and linguistic practice, due to which the scope of activity of technical devices for handwritten and printed speech significantly expanded. Computer graphics combines the properties of both. Computer graphics systems allow you to create not only text, but also drawings, geometric images, animation, etc.

In 988 the baptism of Rus' took place. The Christian religion (Orthodoxy) established itself as the state religion. This entailed the distribution of liturgical literature. Religious books were written in Old Church Slavonic using the Cyrillic alphabet. With the adoption of Orthodoxy, Slavic writing acquired the status of state writing.

In the history of Russian writing, several periods can be distinguished:

end of the 10th – mid-16th centuries. - from the beginning of writing to the beginning of printing;

second half of the 16th century - the beginning of Russian book printing;

Petrine reforms of Russian writing at the beginning of the 18th century;

Changes in the alphabet in the 18th-19th centuries;

Alphabet reform 1917-1918

In 1710, by decree of Peter, a new civil alphabet and printing books in a new font. Peter's next innovation was intended to strengthen the position of secular culture as opposed to church culture. Before this, Old Church Slavonic letter styles were used in official publications and in everyday life. After Peter's reform, the Old Church Slavonic font began to be called Church Slavonic. They are still used in church practice to this day.

The introduction of civil script at the beginning of the 18th century constituted an era in the development of Russian national culture. The alphabet has become much simpler and more accessible to a wide range of people. This also made it possible to create new techniques for book design. Need for rapid development book printing in the era of Peter the Great required a more advanced font than Church Slavonic.

The civil font was created on the basis of Western European fonts and new Russian handwriting, which were distinguished by greater symmetry in the construction of letters. About the change in the style of printed letters, M.V. Lomonosov wrote: “Under Peter, not only the boyars and boyars, but also the letters threw off their wide fur coats and dressed up in summer clothes.”

In addition to introducing a civil script, the Russian emperor tried to improve the alphabet. He personally crossed out the letters “yus big” - Ѭ, “yus small” -i, “xi” -Ѯ, “psi” -Ѱ, “izhitsa” - V, “uk” - Оу, “fert” - Ф, “omega” " - Ѡ, "earth" - Z, "like" - I.

However, this met with opposition from the church. The letters excluded by Peter continued to be used according to the established centuries-old tradition. As a result, civil books from 1711 to 1735 came out of print with a different set of letters.

Accent marks and titles (diacritical marks for abbreviating words) were abolished, since their use led to illegibility of texts and errors. At the same time, the use of letters in numerical values was abandoned.

The new civil alphabet finally came into use by the middle of the 18th century, when it became familiar to the generation that learned to read and write using it. It existed unchanged until the reform of Russian writing in 1918.

Transformations in Russian writing had a significant impact not only on writing, but also on the formation of the Russian literary language. Church Slavonic graphics lost their dominant position in Russian writing and ceased to be the bearer of a literary norm, which also meant that the Church Slavonic language lost its dominant role in the literary language. In this sense, the alphabet reform is a striking example of the modernization of Russian life. It could only take place in conditions when life was renewed. Newspapers began to be published, mail appeared, people began to conduct active business and private correspondence. Writing and reading have become not only a godly activity, but a necessity to correspond to the spirit of the times.

Introduction of new letters. Over the entire history of its existence, four new letters have been introduced into the Russian alphabet: Ya, Y, E, Yo.

I in the Church Slavonic alphabet it looked like two things - like “yus small” Ѧ or “A iotated” IA, which had the same sound meaning a long time ago. The shape of the modern letter I, similar to a mirror image of the Latin letter R, reproduces the italic style of the letter Ѧ, which became widespread in the middle of the 16th century (with a quick drawing of this letter, the left leg gradually disappeared, and the whole figure turned somewhat clockwise. In this form it was fixed with the introduction of the civil font in 1708 and has remained virtually unchanged since then.

E is considered to be a borrowed Glagolitic form of the letter “is” (E), which looks like E. In the Cyrillic alphabet, the sign E has been used at least since the mid-17th century. The letter E was officially included in the alphabet in 1708 when the civil font was created. A large number of borrowings in the Petrine era and later necessitated the need for the letter e, which denoted the sound [e] after hard consonants and at the beginning of a word. Thus, to denote one sound [e], two letters appeared in the language - E and E.

Y introduced in 1753. In the Church Slavonic language, a consistent and mandatory distinction between the use of styles I - J has been legalized since the middle of the 17th century. The translation of the Russian letter into a civil script abolished the superscripts and again combined them with the letter I. Y was restored in 1735, although it was not considered a separate letter of the alphabet until the 20th century.

Yo introduced in 1784. This letter has its own history. Princess Ekaterina Dashkova, director of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences, held a meeting of the Russian Academy at her home on November 29, 1783. The conversation was about the future six-volume Dictionary of the Russian Academy. Then Ekaterina Romanovna, in the presence of Derzhavin, Fonvizin, Knyazhnin, Metropolitan of Novgorod and St. Petersburg Gabriel, suggested writing not “yolk”, but “fir tree”. A year later, on November 18, “e” received official status. Derzhavin was the first to use the letter E, and the fabulist Ivan Dmitriev first printed it: he wrote the words “light” and “stump” into the fairy tale “The Freaky Girl”. The letter became famous thanks to Karamzin, and therefore until recently he was considered its creator.

Since then, the letter has experienced several stages of decline and rise in its popularity. Publishers of the tsarist period, the Soviet period, and perestroika had different attitudes towards it. In 2007, the Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation ordered that the letter “ё” be written in proper names. In 2009, the Supreme Court of Russia decided that in documents “ё” and “e” are equivalent. In 2009, the Bank of Russia allowed to write “ё” in payment documents.

The second reform of Russian writing was carried out in 1917-1918. This was a reform of both the alphabet and spelling. Preparations for this reform began at the end of the 19th century, when the need to simplify the alphabet and spelling became especially obvious. In 1904, the Spelling Commission of the Russian Academy of Sciences was created, which included such prominent linguists as A.A. Shakhmatov, F.F. Fortunatov, I.A. Baudouin de Courtenay, A.I. Sobolevsky and others. In the same year, a project was published that included proposals to eliminate unnecessary letters and new spelling rules. However, the project was met with hostility by the conservative part of society, government circles and even some scientists. At that time, the more widespread opinion was that the acquisition of spelling did not depend on the number of letters in the alphabet, but on incorrect teaching methods, and it was also believed that one should not attach much importance to the “cries of lazy students.” There were so many opponents of the reform that it was necessary to create a special preparatory commission with the participation of school teachers, which worked actively for more than ten years. Finally, in May 1917, the Academy of Sciences and the Ministry of Education proposed introducing reformed spelling in schools starting with the new school year.

The reform was only implemented under Soviet power by decrees of the People's Commissariat of Education dated December 23, 1917 and the Council of People's Commissars dated October 10, 1918.

The reform finally abolished a number of unnecessary letters that made writing difficult: “fita” - Ѳ with replacement through Ф; “yat” - Ѣ with replacement through E; “and decimal - I with replacement through AND; “Izhitsa” – V. The letter “era” - Ъ was canceled at the end of words after a hard consonant (mir, bank).

The reform also made it possible to abandon the names of letters of the Cyrillic alphabet, which used significant words that began with the corresponding sounds (az - A, beeches - B). In the modern Russian alphabet, modeled on the Latin alphabet, the names of the letters are not significant: the name indicates the quality of the sound denoted by the letter (a - A; be - B). Brief letter names make learning the alphabet much easier.

As a result of the reform of 1917-1918. the current Russian alphabet appeared (see Appendix). This alphabet also became the basis of many newly written languages, for which writing was absent before the 20th century or was lost and introduced in the republics of the USSR after the October Socialist Revolution.

In 2010, Russia celebrated the 300th anniversary of the Russian alphabet.

This significant date was one of the reasons due to which the decision was made at the state level to create a domain zone on the Internet in Cyrillic. Cyrillic domains will allow the Russian language to exist in a much wider virtual space than before. This fact is significant not only for Russia, but also for those Slavic states whose writing is based on the Cyrillic alphabet.

List of used literature

Ivanova V.F. Modern Russian language. Graphics and spelling. M., 1976.

Istrin V.A. The emergence and development of writing. M., 2010.

Istrin V.A. 1100 years of the Slavic alphabet. M., 2011.

Lowkotka Ch. Development of writing. (translated from Czech). – M., 1960.

Russian language. Encyclopedia/Ch. ed. Yu.N. Karaulov. – M.: Great Russian Encyclopedia; Bustard, 1998.

Shchepkin V.N. Russian paleography. – M., 1967.

Linguistics. Large encyclopedic dictionary. – M.: Great Russian Encyclopedia, 1998.

Questions for self-control

Give a definition of the concept alphabet.

When does the Russian alphabet appear? What are the prerequisites for its creation?

Tell us about the main characteristics of the Russian alphabet.

In what directions did the Russian alphabet change?

Tell us about the fate of the letters excluded from the Russian alphabet. State the reasons for their initial inclusion in the alphabet and subsequent exclusion.

Tell us about the process of introducing native Russian letters into the alphabet.

What is the composition of the modern Russian alphabet?

Assignment for independent work:

study the topic “The Baptism of Rus' and Slavic writing.”