Monitoring in biological research communication. Biological monitoring methods

Man is nature's most capable student. But millennia passed before he felt his strength and “took hold” of nature. At first, the main thing in his relationship with the land was the pursuit of profit. All your experience, intellectual power and rapidly developing technical means he threw those into exploitation natural resources, which could bring maximum income in the shortest possible time. Without giving himself the trouble to particularly think about what a subtle mechanism and how roughly he interferes, man unleashed massive blows around himself, irrevocably erased from the Earth many species of mammals, birds, plants, but he cannot yet restore a living organism, much less a biological species .

Since assessing the quality of soil, water and air is currently becoming of great importance, it is necessary to determine both the actual and possible future degree of disturbance environment. For this purpose, two principles are used different approaches: physico-chemical and biological. The biological approach is being developed within the framework of a direction called bioindication and biomonitoring. When organizing biological monitoring, a subsystem of observations of the reaction of the main components of the biosphere is distinguished - the biotic component

The purpose of biological monitoring is the analysis of natural objects according to biotic indicators for their environmental control. Within the set goal main task biological monitoring is the determination of the biotic component of the biosphere, its response, reaction to anthropogenic impact, determination of the function of the state and the deviation of this function from the normal state at various levels: molecular, cellular, organismal, population, level of society. Biological monitoring is designed to solve the following tasks:

1) Information support for biota conservation activities, i.e. determination of the state of the biotic component of the biosphere (at various levels of organization of biosystems) and its response to anthropogenic impact;

2) Assessment of the state of the environment based on biotic parameters. A special role is played by identifying the initial stages of unfavorable environmental changes, to which many components of the biota are much more sensitive than humans. Biological monitoring includes monitoring of living organisms - populations (according to their number, biomass, density and other functional and structural characteristics) subject to anthropogenic influence. Its objects can be individual species of flora and fauna, as well as ecosystems. For example, conifers are sensitive to radioactive contamination, lichens are sensitive to heavy metals, and many representatives of soil fauna are sensitive to technogenic pollution. The following observations are highlighted in this subsystem:

1) for the most important populations, both from the point of view of the existence of an ecosystem, which characterizes the well-being of a particular ecosystem by its state, and from the point of view of great economic value, for example, valuable plant species or fish breeds;

2) for the populations most sensitive to this type of impact;

3) the state of human health, the impact of the environment on humans;

4) behind populations – indicators.

Thus, the biomonitoring subsystem is monitoring the population of specific biological species:

1) environment-forming populations, obviously for the existence of the entire ecosystem (for example, populations of dominant tree species in forest ecosystems);

2) populations of great economic value (for example, valuable fish species); 3) indicator populations, the state of which characterizes the degree of well-being of a particular ecosystem and which are most sensitive to anthropogenic impact (for example, the planktonic crustaceans Epishura baikalensis in Lake Baikal in the area affected by the pulp and paper mill).

Information about the state of the natural environment and changes in this state has long been used by humans to plan their activities. For more than 100 years, observations of weather changes and climate have been carried out regularly in the civilized world. These are meteorological, phenological, seismological and some other types of observations and measurements of the state of the environment that are familiar to us all. Now no one needs to be convinced that the state of the natural environment must be constantly monitored. The range of observations, the number of parameters being measured, and the network of observation stations are becoming ever wider. Problems associated with environmental monitoring are becoming increasingly complex.

Of great importance in organizing regional environmental management at the global, regional and local levels, as well as assessing the quality of the human environment in specific territories, in ecosystems of various ranks. There is a special term to designate the entire complex service for monitoring, assessing and forecasting the quality of the environment and the nature of environmental management: “Monitoring”.

Environmental monitoring is a system of repeated, targeted observations of one or more elements of the natural environment in space and time according to scientifically based observation programs, carried out to assess and predict changes in the state of the environment (OS), in order to highlight the anthropogenic component of these changes against the background of natural processes .

The term “monitoring” itself first appeared in the recommendations of the special commission SCOPE (Scientific Committee on Environmental Problems) at UNESCO in 1971, and in 1972 the first proposals for the Global Environmental Monitoring System (Stockholm UN Conference on the Environment) appeared. . However, such a system has not been created to this day due to disagreements in the volumes, forms and objects of monitoring, and the distribution of responsibilities between existing observation systems.

Monitoring is a system of observations, assessments and forecasts that allows us to identify changes in the state of the environment under the influence of anthropogenic activities. First of all, this is monitoring of anthropogenic pollution. Along with a negative impact on nature, a person can, as a result of economic activity, also have positive influence. Often, disastrous business results arise from good intentions. To prevent this from happening, it is necessary to study the environment and predict its possible changes, both for the better and for the worse. Let's consider what constitutes a monitoring service that is so necessary for society.

The monitoring includes:

– monitoring the quality of the environment, factors affecting the environment;

– assessment of the actual state of the natural environment;

– forecast of changes in environmental quality.

Observations can be carried out using physical, chemical and biological indicators, but integrated indicators of the state of the environment are especially promising.

An integral part of environmental monitoring monitoring the state of the environment in terms of physical, chemical and biological indicators is biomonitoring. The tasks of biomonitoring include regularly assessing the quality of the environment using living objects specially selected for this purpose.

Objectives of biological monitoring. Biological monitoring can be divided into: (a) exposure monitoring and (b) effect monitoring, using internal dose and effect indicators respectively.

The purpose of biological exposure monitoring is to assess health risks by determining the internal dose, which in turn reflects the biologically active load of chemical factors on the body. The dose of contamination should not reach a level at which pathological effects may occur. An effect is considered pathological or harmful if the functional activity of the body decreases, the adaptive ability to stress decreases, the ability to maintain homeostasis decreases, or the susceptibility to other environmental influences increases.

Depending on the chemical or biological parameter being analyzed, the term "internal dose" can be interpreted differently. Firstly, it can refer to the amount of chemical absorbed in a short period of time, for example, during one work shift. Concentrations of pollutants in alveolar air can be determined directly during the work shift or the next day (blood and alveolar air samples can be stored for up to 16 hours). Second, if a chemical has a long biological half-life (for example, metals in the circulatory system), then the internal dose value may reflect the amount of the substance taken into the body over several months.

Third, the term "internal dose" can also mean the amount of a substance accumulated in the body. In this case, the internal dose reflects the distribution of the substance among organs and tissues, from which it is then slowly excreted. For example, to obtain a reliable picture of the content of DDT in the body, it is enough to measure their content in the blood.

Finally, the internal dose value serves as an indicator of the amount of the chemical at its sites of action. One of the most important and promising applications of this indicator seems to be the determination of compounds formed by toxic substances with hemoglobin proteins or with DNA.

Biological monitoring of the effect is aimed at identifying symptoms of early reversible changes that occur in a critical organ. In this sense, the importance of biological monitoring of the effect for monitoring the health of workers cannot be overestimated.

In 1990, the Economic Commission of Europe, under the auspices of the UN, adopted a program of integrated environmental monitoring (1M) for the following groups of indicators (their number is indicated in brackets) general meteorology (6), air chemistry (3), soil and groundwater chemistry (4) , surface water chemistry (4), soil (6), biological indicators (11).

Among the indicators monitored, biological indicators occupied a prominent place: epiphytic lichens, ground vegetation, shrub and woody vegetation, projective cover of trees, tree biomass, chemical composition of conifer needles, microelements in needles, soil enzymes, mycorrhiza, rate of decomposition of plant residues and one of other methods biomonitoring optional.

On the territory of the former USSR, six areas were designated for regional monitoring of the above biological indicators.

The most developed regional monitoring systems are in Germany and the Netherlands.

For example, consider one of the biomonitoring systems adopted in Germany (Baden-Württemberg). It involves assessing the following indicators:

– degree of defoliation (premature loss of foliage) of beech, spruce and fir;

– composition of pollutants in leaves and needles;

– succession (natural change) of herbaceous vegetation;

– the vitality of the grass stand and the content of pollutants in it;

– area covered by epiphytic lichens;

– the number of springtails (small soil arthropods) and terrestrial mollusks;

– accumulation of pollutants in earthworms.

Monitoring results are presented in the form of tables and graphs. One of the successful methods is the “Amoeba” method. Draw a circle, which is divided by lines into equal sectors according to the number of measured indicators. The circle line indicates their normal values. Indicators can be chemical (content of heavy metals, phosphorus, etc.), physical (groundwater level, turbidity, etc.) and biological (abundance, diversity and other characteristics of bioindicators). Next, in each sector, an area proportional to the values of the corresponding indicator is painted over. The lines can go beyond the circle, if the values are “off scale”, then “Amoebae” appears “outgrowths-psepododes”. The results of monitoring, presented in the form of a series of such drawings, clearly reveal the direction of the “movement of Amoeba” and, accordingly, the direction of changes in the ecosystem.

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Ministry of Education of the Russian Federation

St. Petersburg State Mining Institute named after. G.V. Plekhanov (technical university)

Biological monitoring

Lecture notes for the specialty

330200- Engineering environmental protection

Direction 656600 Environmental protection

V.F. Shuisky

St. Petersburg 2000

Introduction

1. General views on biological control of the environment

1.1 Opportunities, advantages and disadvantages of assessing the state of the environment by abiotic indicators, by biotic indicators, by independently taken into account indicators of both groups, by the results of their integration

1.2 Bioindication and biotesting

1.3 Biological monitoring as a component of biological control of the state of the environment. Its role in environmental monitoring

2. Biosystems of various levels of organization and their indicator characteristics. Biodiversity

2.1 Levels of organization of biological objects (biosystems)

2.2 Conservation of biodiversity is the key to maintaining the sustainability of ecosystems and the biosphere

3. Biota response to anthropogenic impacts

3.1 Ecosystem succession

3.2 Background conditions and background state of biota

3.3 Forms of resistance of biological systems to impacts

4. Methods of biological monitoring. Bioindication. Biotesting

4.1 Patterns of influence of environmental factors on biosystems

4.2 Biotesting

4.2.1 Biotests on bacteria

4.2.2 Bioassays on algae

4.2.3 Biotests on mosses

4.2 4 Biotests on lichens

4.2.5 Lichen transplant method

4.2.6 Biotests on higher plants

4.2.7 Animal biotests

4.3 Bioindication

4.3.1 Requirements for bioindicators

4.3.2 Bioindication of terrestrial ecosystems

4.4 Monitoring of forest phytocenosis

4.4.1 Description of plants in the key area in the forest

4.4.2 Drawing up a forest stand formula

4.4.3 Determination of plant vitality

4.4.4 Determination of abundance

4.4.5 Determination of the type of plant community (association)

4.4.6 Definition of reforestation

4.5 Monitoring of meadow phytocenosis

4.6 Monitoring of green spaces in a populated area

4.6.1 Determination of the condition of Scots pine needles to assess air pollution

4.6.2 Determination of air purity by lichens

4.7 Bioindication of freshwater ecosystems

4.8 Hydrobionts as indicators of environmental quality

4.9 Bioindication using macrozoobenthos characteristics at subcenotic levels

4.10 Bioindication using indicators of macrozoobenthos communities (coenotic methods of bioindication)

4.10.1 Indicators based on taking into account the total macrozoobenthos, its functional groups and taxa of supraspecific rank (without taking into account the species composition of the community)

4.10.2 Indicators based on determining the species composition of macrozoobenthos. Saprobity indices and scales

4.10.3 Use of species diversity indicators

4.10.4 Assessment of changes in the species composition of communities

4.11 Bioindication based on quantitative patterns of limitation of biota by environmental conditions (using the example of macrozoobenthos)

4.12 Bioindication based on accumulation

5. Coenotic bioindication: classification and ordination methods

6. Biosedimentation and water clarification

7. Biological detoxification

8. Photosynthetic aeration of water and enrichment with metabolites

9. Biological basis of water purification

10. Ecological foundations of drinking water supply

11. Basics of combating biological interference

12. Legal basis for the conservation of rare biological species

Introduction

The main goal of studying this discipline is for students to acquire basic knowledge and practical skills in monitoring the state of the environment according to biological criteria. To do this, it is necessary to solve the following tasks: to master the modern methodology of biological monitoring as an important component of environmental monitoring; - study the processes of anthropogenic impacts on biota; master the most important methods of biomonitoring, bioindication and biotesting; analyze the domestic and foreign regulatory framework for biological monitoring, biological components of EIA and environmental assessment; learn to take into account the results and methods of biological control of the environment when making engineering decisions to protect it.

1. General ideas about biological control of the environment

As is known, assessment of environmental quality and anthropogenic changes in aquatic ecosystems can be carried out using both their abiotic parameters and biotic ones (i.e. using bioindication). Both approaches have their advantages and disadvantages. Abiotic parameters are more convenient in that they directly characterize the composition of the environment, in particular, its specific negative changes, and have a strict quantitative expression. However, it is impossible to obtain a complete description of the environment from them, because the main criterion - the reaction of the biota to it - remains unaccounted for. In addition, modern anthropogenic impacts on aquatic ecosystems are usually very complex, and even when a significant number of abiotic parameters are controlled, there is always doubt that any influential factors still remain unaccounted for. Finally, the response of ecosystems depends significantly not only on the composition of factors, but also on their interaction. All this makes it very difficult to assess the state of the ecosystem and the quality of the aquatic environment based on abiotic parameters alone.

Table 1. Advantages and disadvantages of abiotic and biotic approaches to environmental impact assessment (EIA) indicators.

	Advantages	Flaws
*Abiot score* ical indicators	The values of a number of specific factors are known	EIA is often inaccurate or fundamentally flawed due to: 1. shortcomings of the entire MPC system 2. small share of factors taken into account 3. incorrect accounting of synergies 4. local (background) environmental features	Lists of maximum permissible concentrations and safety standards, ISO 10304-1:1992, 10703:1997, 11732:1997, etc.
Assessment by biotic indicators e lam	*Many methods* guarantee a very reliable EIA	Limiting factors and their significance are unknown	ISO 9998:1991, 10707:1994, 11733:1995, 10705:1995 Woodiwiss method, saprobity scales, etc.
*Abiotic assessment* and biotic indicators separately, comparison of results	The reliability of the EIA is higher than with 1.2, due to the comparison of abiotic and biotic indicators. The values of a number of factors are known.	The probability of underestimating some of the limiting factors remains significant. The patterns of determination of the state of the environment by limiting factors remain unknown s mi.	*GOST standards "Nature protection* odes" (17.1.3.07-82, 17.1.3.08-82, etc.), SNiP 2.1.4.559.-96, “Belgian” method, etc.
*Assessment based on the relationship between biotic and abiotic displays* ateliers	Limiting factors and the pattern of their action are established. The reliability of the EIA is maximum. The best basis for environmental regulation and regulation.	The greatest labor intensity, the highest requirements for the qualifications of ecologists	GOSTs "Nature Conservation" (17.1.3.07-82, 17.1.3.08-82, etc.), SNiP 2.1.4.559.-96, "Belgian" method, etc.

The advantage of using biotic parameters (bioindication) is their greater reliability and objectivity. The state of the biota is determined by the entire state of the environment and clearly responds to negative impacts of any origin, regardless of their consideration and degree of study (Dyachkov, 1984; Alimov, 1989, 1994; Krivolutsky, 1990; Sokolov et al., 1990; Chaphekar, 1991; Aviles, 1992; Shuisky, 1997; etc.). But, while adequately reflecting the degree of negative impact in general, bioindication does not explain exactly what factors create it.

The most effective is a combination of both approaches. This technique is increasingly included in the practice of assessing water quality (Harsany, 1986; Vernichenko, 1988; Reynoldson, Zarll, 1989; Bervoets e.a., 1989; Maslennikova, Skornyakov, 1993; etc.).

The determination of a number of biotic indicators, along with traditional abiotic ones, is already provided for by regulatory environmental documents (for example, GOST 17.1.3.07-82 "Nature conservation. Hydrosphere. Rules for monitoring the water quality of reservoirs and watercourses"; GOST 17.1.2.04-77. Nature conservation. Hydrosphere . Indicators of the condition and rules for taxation of fishery objects"; "Temporary guidelines for a comprehensive assessment of the quality of surface waters based on hydrochemical indicators." Instruction of the State Committee for Hydrometeorology No. 250-1163 dated September 22, 1986; etc.).

However, usually abiotic and biotic parameters are considered separately, without taking into account their relationship. Undoubtedly, simply expanding the list of parameters taken into account also to some extent increases the reliability of assessing the quality of the environment. But for adequate environmental regulation, it is necessary not only to select the most indicative abiotic and biotic characteristics of the ecosystem, but also to take into account the patterns of biota response to environmental changes.

At the same time, the state of the entire environment as a whole is quite reliably assessed based on the results of bioindication, and a direct assessment of physico-chemical characteristics helps to understand which anthropogenic factors worsen the environment the most and how exactly this happens.

1.2 Bioindication and biotesting

There are two methodologically different solutions for assessing the state of the environment based on biota characteristics: biotesting and bioindication.

Biotesting- this is an assessment of the quality of the environment with active intervention in natural processes, by setting up an experiment in natural or laboratory conditions. The essence of biotesting comes down to determining the consequences of the interaction of experimental organisms (“ test objects") with the test environment. Examples of experiments on biotesting of the environment in laboratory and natural conditions can serve, respectively, as experiments to determine the rate of biochemical oxygen consumption (BOD) and primary plankton production (PP). BOD values characterize the degree of water contamination with easily mineralizable organic substances, values PP -- degree of saturation of water with nutrients ( relevant laboratory works described in the laboratoryAThorough workshop on the subject"Engineering ecology"). In these experiments, the test object is the community of all planktonic organisms inhabiting the test environment. Sometimes in experiments on biotesting of the environment, test objects are introduced into it artificially. Animals are used for this certain type, with known environmental characteristics. Test objects are kept for a long time in vessels with the test medium diluted with clean water in various amounts. The degree of harmfulness and danger of the environment is judged by comparing changes in the characteristics of test objects with different durations of experience in comparable environments. Such characteristics include survival, fertility, morbidity, growth rate and individual development, behavioral characteristics, and various structural and functional changes in organisms. As standard test objects, it is customary to use, for example, bacteria Esherichia coli, ciliates of the genera Paramecium and Tetrachimena, copepods Daphnia magna, eggs and larvae of salmon fish, and many others. etc.

Bioindication- this is an assessment of the quality of the environment based on the state of certain representatives of its population - biota, carried out by observing them, without active (experimental) intervention in natural processes. The objects of such observations can be biological systems of any level of organization.

Environmental quality is assessed using qualitative and quantitative indicator criteria. They are those characteristics of the observed biological systems that most fully and accurately reflect the degree of their well-being.

1.3 Biological monitoring as a component of biological control of the state of the environment. Its role in environmental monitoring

monitoring biotic ecosystem bioindication

For a long time, observations were made only of changes in the state of the natural environment due to natural causes. In recent decades, human impact on the environment has sharply increased throughout the world, and it has become obvious that uncontrolled exploitation of nature can lead to very serious negative consequences. In this regard, an even greater need has arisen for detailed information about the state of the biosphere.

It is known that the state of the biosphere changes under the influence of natural and anthropogenic influences. The state of the biosphere, continuously changing under the influence of natural causes, usually returns to its original state (changes in temperature and pressure, air and soil humidity, fluctuations of which mainly occur around some relatively constant average values, seasonal changes in the biomass of vegetation and animals, etc. .). Average values characterizing the state of the biosphere (its climatic characteristics in any region of the globe, the natural composition of various environments, the cycle of water, carbon and other substances, global biological productivity) change significantly only over a very long time (thousands, sometimes even hundreds of thousands and millions years). Large equilibrium ecological systems and geosystems also change extremely slowly under the influence of natural processes.

Changes in the state of the biosphere under the influence of anthropogenic factors can occur very quickly. Thus, the changes that have occurred for these reasons in some elements of the biosphere over the past few decades are comparable to some natural changes that have occurred over thousands and even millions of years. Natural changes in the state of the natural environment, both short-term and long-term, are largely observed and studied by geophysical services existing in many countries (hydrometeorological, seismic, ionospheric, gravimetric, magnetometric, etc.). In order to highlight anthropogenic changes against the background of natural ones, the need arose to organize special observations of changes in the state of the biosphere under the influence of human activity.

A system of repeated observations of one or more elements of the natural environment in space and time for specific purposes, in accordance with a pre-prepared program, was proposed to be called monitoring. The term "monitoring" appeared before the UN Stockholm Conference on the Environment (Stockholm, June 5-16, 1972). The first proposals for such a system were developed by experts of the special commission SCOPE (Scientific Committee on Problems of the Environment) in 1971. This term appeared in contrast to and in addition to the term “control”, the interpretation of which included not only observation and obtaining information, but and elements of active actions, controls. Monitoring anthropogenic changes in the natural environment should be considered observation system, callOmaking it possible to highlight changes in the state of the biosphere under the influencem, hhuman activity.

The main document defining and regulating environmental activities in the Russian Federation is the Law “On the Protection of the Natural Environment”. In accordance with Article 68 of the Law:

"Environmental control sets its objectives: monitoring the state of the natural environment and its changes under the influence of economic or other activities; checking the implementation of plans and measures for nature protection, rational use of natural resources, improvement of the natural environment, compliance with the requirements of environmental legislation and environmental quality standards environment. The environmental control system consists of civil service monitoring the state of the environment, state, production and public control." In the broad sense of the word, environmental control is the activity of government bodies, enterprises and citizens to comply with environmental norms and rules; accordingly, state, production and public environmental control are distinguished.

The monitoring system can cover both local areas and the globe as a whole (global monitoring). The main feature of the global monitoring system is the ability, based on the data from this system, to assess the state of the biosphere on a global scale.

National monitoring usually refers to a monitoring system within one state; such a system differs from global monitoring not only in scale, but also in the fact that the main task of national monitoring is to obtain information and assess the state of the environment in national interests. Thus, an increase in the level of air pollution in individual cities or industrial areas may not be significant for assessing the state of the biosphere on a global scale, but it seems to be an important issue for taking measures in a given area, measures at the national level. The global monitoring system should be based on national monitoring subsystems and include elements of these subsystems. The term “transboundary” or “international” monitoring is sometimes used. Apparently, it is most correct to use this term for monitoring systems used in the interests of several states (to consider issues of transboundary transfer of pollution between states, etc.).

In Russia, the monitoring system is implemented at several levels:

impact (studying strong impacts on a local scale);

regional (manifestation of problems of migration and transformation of pollutants, joint impact of various factors characteristic of the regional economy);

background (on the basis of biosphere reserves, where any economic activity is excluded).

On the territory of the former USSR there was a National Service for Observation and Control of the State of the Environment ( OGSNK). In 1993, a decision was made to create a Unified state system environmental monitoring ( EGSEM) - a fundamentally new interdepartmental information and measurement system, formed based on territorial units in the constituent entities of the Russian Federation and focused on a comprehensive assessment and forecast of the state of the natural environment in the Russian Federation for the purpose of information support for management decision-making.

In accordance with regulatory legal documents, general management of the creation and operation of the Unified State System for Environmental Monitoring and coordination of the activities of state executive authorities in the field of environmental monitoring are entrusted to the State Committee for Ecology of Russia. With the coordination of the State Committee for Ecology, work is underway to create and develop territorial subsystems of the Unified State Environmental Monitoring System (TSEM) in experimental territories (republics: Altai, Mordovia, Chuvashia; regions: Vologda, Kaluga, Kurgan, Perm, Orenburg, Chelyabinsk; autonomous okrugs: Khanty-Mansiysk, Yamalo- Nenets; ecological-resort region Caucasian Mineral Waters). Currently, the number of subjects of the Russian Federation in which work on the creation of TSEM has been launched is approaching 50 (State Report of the State Committee for Ecology, 2000).

EGSEM as a center for a unified scientific and technical policy in the field of environmental monitoring, it should ensure:

coordinating the development and implementation of environmental observation programs;

regulation and control of the collection and processing of reliable data;

storing information, maintaining special data banks;

activities to assess and forecast the state of environmental objects, natural resources, responses of ecosystems and public health to anthropogenic impact;

accessibility of environmental information to a wide range of consumers.

Goals of the Global Environmental Monitoring System program ( GSMOS) - warning about changes in the state of the natural environment that threaten human health, associated with pollution, natural disasters, and environmental problems.

So, monitoring is a multi-purpose information system. Its main tasks are: monitoring the state of the biosphere, assessing and forecasting its state; determining the degree of anthropogenic impact on the environment, identifying factors and sources of such impact, as well as the degree of their impact.

Monitoring includes the following main areas of activity:

1) monitoring factors affecting the natural environment and the state of the environment;

2) assessment of the actual state of the natural environment;

3) forecast of the state of the natural environment and assessment of this state.

Thus, monitoring is a system observations, assessments and forecastsObehind state of the natural environment, which does not include environmental quality management.

The most universal approach to determining the structure of a system for monitoring anthropogenic changes in the natural environment is to divide it into blocks:

"Observations"

"Assessment of actual condition",

"State Forecast"

"Assessment of the predicted state"

The “Observations” and “State Forecast” blocks are closely related to each other, since a forecast of the state of the environment is possible only if there is sufficiently representative information about the actual state (direct connection). Constructing a forecast, on the one hand. implies knowledge of the patterns of changes in the state of the natural environment, the presence of a scheme and the capabilities of numerical calculations, on the other hand, the direction of the forecast should largely determine the structure and composition of the observation network (feedback).

Data characterizing the state of the natural environment, obtained as a result of observations or forecasts, must be assessed depending on the area of human activity in which they are used (using specially selected or developed criteria). Assessment implies, on the one hand, the determination of damage from the impact, on the other - selection of optimal conditions for human activity, determination of existing environmental reserves. This type of assessment implies knowledge of permissible loads on the natural environment.

Geophysical information systems, as well as Information system monitoring of anthropogenic changes are an integral part of the management system, human interaction with the environment (environmental management system), since information about the current state of the natural environment and trends in its change should form the basis for the development of nature protection measures and be taken into account when planning economic development . The results of assessing the current and predicted state of the biosphere, in turn, make it possible to clarify the requirements for the observation subsystem (this constitutes the scientific justification for monitoring, justification for the composition and structure of the network and observation methods).

Since the assessment of the actual and predicted state of the natural environment is an integral part of monitoring, some authors identify this part of monitoring with the element of managing the state of the natural environment. Observations of the state of the natural environment should include observations of the sources and factors of anthropogenic impact (including sources of pollution, radiation, etc.), the state of the elements of the biosphere (including the responses of living organisms to impacts, changes in their structural and functional indicators This implies obtaining data on the initial (or background) state of the elements of the biosphere.

This approach covers monitoring the entire cycle of anthropogenic impacts - from sources of impact to the influence and reactions of individual natural environments and complex ecological systems. On a territorial scale, priority is given to cities, drinking water sources and fish spawning grounds. With regard to observation environments, atmospheric air and fresh water deserve priority attention.

The main task biological monitoring is to determine the state of the biotic component of the biosphere, its response, reaction to anthropogenic impact, determine the function of the state and the deviation of this function from the normal natural state at various levels of organization of biosystems.

The study of the content of various ingredients in biota can only conditionally be classified as biological monitoring. This question relates to the measurement of pollutants in different environments. Biological monitoring can also include observations of the state of the biosphere using biological indicators.

Biological monitoring includes monitoring of living organisms-populations (by their number, biomass, density and other functional and structural characteristics) exposed to impact. In this monitoring subsystem, it is advisable to highlight the following observations:

a) the state of human health, the impact of the environment on humans (medical biological monitoring);

b) for the most important populations, both from the point of view of the existence of an ecosystem, which characterizes the well-being of a particular ecosystem by its state, and from the point of view of great economic value (for example, valuable varieties of fish);

c) for the populations most sensitive to a given type of impact (or to a complex impact) (for example, vegetation to the effects of sulfur dioxide) or for the “critical” populations in relation to this impact (for example, epishura zooplankton in Lake Baikal to discharges from pulp mills) ;

d) behind indicator populations (for example, lichens).

A special place in biological monitoring should be occupied by geneticeChinese monitoring(observation of possible changes in hereditary traits in different populations).

Environmental monitoring(global monitoring of the biosphere) is more universal; it generalizes the results of both biological and geophysical monitoring at the level of ecological systems.

Currently, the most developed system of biological monitoring of surface waters (hydrobiological monitoring) and forests. However, even in these areas, biological monitoring significantly lags behind the monitoring of abiotic characteristics of the environment - both in methodological, methodological and regulatory support, and by the number of observations. For example: n observations of land surface water pollution based on hydrochemical indicators 1166 water bodies are covered. Sampling is carried out at 1699 points (2342 sites) for physical and chemical indicators with the simultaneous determination of hydrological indicators. At the same time, n Observations of land surface water pollution by hydrobotic indicators are carried out only in five hydrographic regions, on 81 water bodies (170 sections), and the observation program includes from 2 to 6 indicators. Integrated monitoring networkApollution of the natural environment and the state of vegetation (SPZR) has only 30 posts, which are located on the territory of 11 UGMS (controlling authorities: Rosleskhoz, State Committee for Ecology of Russia).

The State Fisheries Committee of Russia is taking part in the work to create a Unified State Environmental Monitoring System (USESEM) (creation of a Unified State System for monitoring aquatic biological resources, observing and monitoring the activities of Russian and foreign fishing vessels using space communications and specialized information technologies). Monitoring of aquatic biological resources includes:

Monitoring of fauna objects belonging to fisheries;

Monitoring the state of pollution of biological resources of fishery reservoirs of the Russian Federation and their habitat. (Synchronous monitoring of the habitat of commercial fish species is specific and absolutely necessary for a correct understanding of the oceanological foundations of bioproductivity, forecast of TAC and protection of the most valuable aquatic organisms);

Information bulletin "Radiation situation in fishing areas of the World Ocean";

Industry cadastre of commercial fish of the Russian Federation.

Nowadays, work in the field of biological monitoring (including monitoring of biogeocenoses and monitoring of rare and protected species of flora and fauna) is actively carried out in a number of regions and, taking into account the principle of the USESM orientation towards an ecosystem approach when determining the quality of the natural environment, deserves special attention. For example, in the Tyumen region in 1998-2000, stage 1 of the program “Creation of a Unified Territorial Environmental Monitoring System of the Tyumen Region” was successfully implemented. At the same time, methods for conducting environmental monitoring of the main biogeocenoses have been developed, a network of permanent, experimental areas has been organized for its implementation in the southern zone of the region. In the Amur Region there is a subsystem for monitoring flora and fauna in terms of rare and protected species (RMS) within the framework of AMURSEM. A program on GRM for the period up to 2005, etc. was developed, tested and approved. The development of the biomonitoring system in Russia is considered one of the most pressing environmental tasks (State Report of the State Committee for Ecology, 2000).

In the activities related to the creation of the Unified State Environmental Monitoring System, a significant place is occupied by work on international environmental monitoring projects, the coordination and scientific and methodological support of which is entrusted to the State Committee for Ecology of Russia (the “Global Environmental Monitoring” projects of the Russian-American Commission on Environmental and Technological Cooperation, GRID/UNEP, Arctic Monitoring and Assessment (AMAP), Arctic Data Directory (ADD), East Asia Acid Deposition Monitoring Network (EANET), etc.), as well as work on the creation of an Interstate Environmental Monitoring System for the CIS countries - members of the Interstate Environmental Council (IEC) of the Interstate Economic Committee (IEC). In 1999, an Agreement on cooperation in the field of environmental monitoring of the CIS member states was signed.

2. Biosystems of various levels of organization and their indicator characteristics. Biodiversity

As you know, modern life forms are very diverse. Of the many classifications of this variety, we note only the most practically important.

By lenght(largest linear size) organisms are divided into three categories:

1) nanobionts (length less than 50 microns), studied nanobiol O giya ;

2) microbionts , or "microbes" (50 - 500 microns), studied micro O biology ;

3) macrobionts (more than 500 microns), studied ma To robiology .

By way of nutrition The body is divided into the following categories:

1) autotrophs (literally: “self-feeding”) - organisms that consume exclusively inorganic substances and the organic substances that produce them (through photosynthesis, like plants, or chemosynthesis, like some bacteria).

2) heterotrophs ("feeding on others") - organisms capable eat organic matter produced by other organisms (such as animals).

3) decomposers (“simplifying”, “decomposing”) - decomposing organic residues and waste products of autotrophs and heterotrophs into simpler organic ones and, ultimately, into inorganic substances(some bacteria, fungi, etc.).

Along with the concepts of “autotrophs” and “heterotrophs”, similar but not identical concepts of “producers” and “consumers” are also used.

Producers - organisms, capable produce organic matter from inorganic matter.

Consumers - organisms that consume exclusively organic matter produced by other organisms.

Sometimes the concepts of “autotrophs” and “producers”, as well as “heterotrophs” and “consumers” are mistakenly identified, but they do not always coincide. For example, blue-greens (Cyanea) are capable of producing organic matter themselves using photosynthesis, and consuming it in finished form, and decomposing it into inorganic substances. Therefore they are heterotrophs - but not by consumers, but producers And decomposers simultaneously.

Structural diversity and kinship various forms of life are studied by two interrelated sciences - systematics and taxonomy.

Taxonomy - biological science about the diversity, classification of organisms and family relationships between them.

Taxonomy (from the gr. "fboit" - arrangement, order) - biological science that determines the methodology and methods of hierarchical classification of organisms depending on the degree of their relationship.

Taxon - the general name of classification units of various ranks, showing the place of an object in the system. In biology, there are several main taxa, corresponding to different levels of relatedness of different life forms.

The main taxon is view . Species close to each other unite into genus - taxon of somewhat higher rank.

Species names are given in Latin, according to the binary (double) nomenclature proposed by K. Linnaeus: the first word, a noun, is the name of the genus, the second, usually an adjective, is the name of the species (for example, the butterfly Pieris brassicae - cabbage white butterfly). The total number of currently known species exceeds 30 million, of which more than 90% are insects.

Closely related genera, in turn, are combined into families , families - in O T ranks , squads - in classes , classes - in types .

For example, domestic cat belongs to the phylum of chordates (Chordata), class of mammals (Mammalia), order of carnivores (Carnivora), family of cats (Felidae), genus of cats (Felis), species Felis maniculata.

In addition, taxonomists often also use taxa of intermediate ranks (subfamilies, superorders, subphyla, etc.).

Type is the highest systematic category. However, various types of living organisms are relatively conventionally united into even larger groups - sections and finally kingdoms .

Until the middle of the 20th century, taxonomists distinguished only two kingdoms of cellular life forms - plants(studied by the science of botany) and animals(studied by zoology).

As more and more fundamental structural differences are revealed different forms life, the number of allocated kingdoms gradually increased. To date, representatives of various systematic schools have different estimates of the required number of distinguished kingdoms - from four to five (moneras, or prokaryotes; protists - unicellular eukaryotes; fungi; plants; animals) to several dozen. The system of distinguishing kingdoms according to A.G. is becoming increasingly recognized. Zavarzin, according to which cellular life forms should be divided into seven kingdoms:

1) bacteria (Bacteria)

2) blue-green (Cyanea)

3) seaweed (Algae)

4) mushrooms (Fungi)

5) plants (Plantae)

6) protozoa (Protozoa)

7) animals (Animalia)

However, in the literature, the division of all living organisms into three main groups is still often found: animals, plants and microbes (studied, respectively, by zoology, botany and microbiology). This classification is incorrect, first of all, because it combines completely incompatible criteria: systematic(plant and animal kingdoms) and dimensional(microbes are organisms of any systematic affiliation with a length from 50 to 500 microns). Moreover, some organisms correspond to two categories at once (for example, animals and microbes, like many protozoa, etc.). Other organisms, on the contrary, do not fall into any of the categories (for example, large algae, fungi, etc.). When using one or another classification of life forms, in order to avoid such errors, one should proceed from a single criterion: to distinguish organisms by their size, structural features, taxonomic affiliation, feeding methods, etc.

2.1 Levels of bio organizationlogical objects (biosystems)

One of the main properties of all living things is hierarchy, systematic organization. The term " system "(from the gr. "uhufzmb" - a whole made up of parts) means a set of interconnected elements that form a certain integrity, unity. The system is characterized not only by the presence of connections and relationships between its elements, but also by continuous unity with the environment, in interaction with which shows its integrity. The idea of a system, the foundations of which were laid by Euclid, Plato and Aristotle, is constantly developing, and since the middle of the 20th century it has become one of the key philosophical, methodological and special scientific concepts. The founder of modern general theory systems considered Ludwig van Bertalanffy (1969).

According to systems theory, one should distinguish cumulative (A d ditive ) And emergent properties of an object consisting of components. Cumulative, or additive (from the Latin "addo" - add) properties represent the sum of the properties of the components. Emerging (from the English “emergot” - to appear unexpectedly) are qualitatively new properties of an object that cannot be composed from the properties of the components or predicted from them. A system, by definition, has emergent properties that appear due to its specific method of interconnection and integration of elements.

In biology, it is customary to distinguish the following main organizational levels A tions biological objects (biosystems ):

1. Molecules and molecular complexes(for example, protein molecules, nucleic acids; molecular complexes - genes, viruses, etc.).

2. Organelles or organelles cells (for example, mitochondria, ribosomes, chloroplasts, etc.).

3. Cells(organism or cell culture).

4. Fabrics (for example, xylem, blood, various forms of epithelium, etc.).

5. Organs(for example, heart, liver, hepatopancreas - in invertebrate animals, etc.).

6. Organ systems(for example, cardiovascular, digestive, respiratory, etc.).

7. Organisms(for example, a unicellular organism - an amoeba or a multicellular organism - a person).

8. Populations and subpopulations(intrapopulation) structures. Population (from the Latin “populus” - people, population) can be defined as any collection of individuals of the same species capable of self-reproduction, more or less isolated in space and time from other similar collections of individuals of the same species (Gilyarov, 1990). TO subpopulation I tion structures include various intrapopulation groupings of individuals.

9. Cenoses(communities living organisms) of various ranks, including biocenoses.

Community , or cenosis (from the gr. "chpinpt" - together, together) - a set of living organisms of a certain category, simultaneously inhabiting a certain area of space.

In general, the categories of organisms to be taken into account and the size of the studied area of space can be chosen by the ecologist arbitrarily, in convenient accordance with the purpose of his research. However, it is most appropriate to study communities within biotope. Biotope(from the gr. "fprpt" - place; literally - "place of life"; synonym - ecotop ) - a relatively homogeneous area of natural space, qualitatively different from neighboring areas and having more or less clear boundaries with them. Typically, the structure of communities is mainly determined by the properties of the biotope. Therefore, communities vary significantly in different biotopes, but within a biotope they are relatively homogeneous.

The most complete and systematically organized community is biocenosis (Mcbius, 1877) - a collection of individuals everyone species that simultaneously inhabit a biotope and are interconnected with each other and with the biotope by flows of matter, energy and information. This relationship may occur continuously or periodically.

In ecology the term " biota "(from the gr. "vypfz" - life) - a collection of individuals of all species inhabiting a certain area of space. The terms "biocenosis" and "biota" are not synonymous. Unlike biocenosis, the concept of biota can be applied to a community of all biological species at any , a part of a territory or water area arbitrarily selected by a researcher, which does not necessarily correspond to the definition of a biotope.In addition, biota is often considered not as a biosystem, but as a simple collection of organisms of all species, without taking into account their relationships.

9. Ecological systems (ecosystems) of various ranks, including biogeocenoses. Ecosystem (Tansley, 1935) - a set of living and interacting organisms of all species, as well as physical and chemical components of the environment necessary for their existence or being a product of their vital activity.

A special case of an ecosystem is biogeocenosis - “a set of homogeneous natural phenomena (atmosphere, rock, soil and hydrological conditions, vegetation, fauna and the world of microorganisms) over a certain area of the earth’s surface, which has its own specific interaction of these components and a certain type of exchange of matter and energy between themselves and other natural phenomena "(Sukachev, 1940, 1942). In other words, biogeocenosis is a biosystem that integrates a biotope and its biocenosis.

Unlike biogeocenosis, an ecosystem can also have an artificial origin, artificially established boundaries, as well as significant internal heterogeneity (for example, the ecosystem of a drop of water, the World Ocean, an aquarium, spaceship). Thus, only ecosystems of biotopes belong to biogeocenoses.

10. Ecosphere Earth (Kohl, 1958) is a global ecosystem that unites all modern ecosystems of the Earth.

11. Biosphere Earth (Zьss, 1873, Vernadsky, 1919, 1926) - an area of the earth's surface inhabited by life or formed with the participation of living organisms. The biosphere is a general planetary shell, covering the thickness of the troposphere, hydrosphere, sedimentary, part of granite and even basalt rocks of the lithosphere, created during the entire geological history of the Earth.

In biological monitoring, environmental quality is assessed using qualitative and quantitative indicator characteristics. They are those characteristics of the observed biological systems that most fully and accurately reflect the degree of their well-being (Table 2).

2.2 Conservation of biodiversity is the key to maintaining the sustainability of ecosystems and the biosphere

Biodiversity indicators are among the most important characteristics of the state of biota. This is due to the following:

Table 2. Some indicator features of biosystems at various levels of organization

Level of organization of the biosystem	Indicative signs:
Suborganismic	The degree of activity of enzymes and hormones Frequency and nature of mutations, deformities Structural and functional characteristics of cellular organelles Histological changes Concentrations of pollutants in tissues and organs
Organismal	Morphological (frequency and nature of deformities) Physiological (rate of growth, respiration, metabolism, nutrition, food assimilation, etc.)
Population	Number, density and production of the population, absolute and specific rate of their change Characteristics of size-weight, age, sex structure of the population
Coenotic (level of communities and biocenosis as a whole)	Species composition, characteristics of species richness and diversity of communities Number, density and production of the community, absolute and specific rate of their change Characteristics of the size-weight and trophic structure of the community

Note: When biomonitoring, it is necessary to take into account the teratogenic effect of pollutants, i.e. the ability to cause various deformities and developmental defects in test organisms. The consequences of the action of teratogenic pollutants are different: in some cases, teratogenesis can affect only cellular organelles, individual cells; in others, it affects tissues, organs and the entire body. Therefore, such changes should be taken into account using known test systems, as well as new methods for bioindication of the teratogenic effects of pollutants should be developed.

1) The diversity and, especially, the species composition of the biota, in comparison with its other characteristics, is determined to the greatest extent by environmental conditions.

2) It is the species composition that is the “key” characteristic of the biota and largely determines its other properties. For a wide variety of ecosystems, it has been shown that exogenous disturbances in the species composition of communities are apparently irreversible. If the species composition of the community is changed, then, firstly, the changes that have already occurred in other coenotic characteristics will most likely also turn out to be irreversible, and secondly, the risk of their further unpredictable, sometimes very significant and abrupt changes is also high. The constancy of the species composition of communities, on the contrary, ensures the reversibility of the changes caused, the restoration of the original properties of communities after removal of the impact, and is the optimal criterion for preserving the basic properties of communities under impact conditions.

3) As is known, biota regulates the state of the ecosystem: ensures its resistance to impacts (determines the self-cleaning of the ecosystem from pollution) and sets autogenous succession. Therefore, the preservation of biodiversity and, as a consequence, the stability of biota is also the key to preserving the original properties of the ecosystem.

Accordingly, when assessing the impact on an ecosystem, one should, first of all, pay attention to changes in the species composition and diversity of biota. The species diversity of a community is usually assessed using special indices, of which the most widely used and reliable is the Shannon-Weaver information index ( H,bit/instance):

where n is the number of species in the community,

Ni is the density (or biomass) of the i-th species,

N is the density (or biomass) of the entire community.

Determining the species composition of communities of aquatic organisms and the indicators of species richness and diversity based on it requires much more qualifications from the researcher than determining general quantitative characteristics (density, biomass, etc.). The latter are also important for bioindication, but they should be considered as additional indicators, depending on species originality and diversity.

3. Biota response to anthropogenic impacts

3.1 Ecosystem succession

An ecosystem is created by the unity of its abiotic (non-living) and biotic (living) components, which are in complex interaction. They enter the ecosystem from outside allochthonous (foreign) mineral and organic matter and energy ( solar radiation, thermal, etc.). Organisms using solar energy producers They form organic compounds from mineral substances, which are spent on their life support (R - expenditure on metabolism) and the formation of products (P - growth and release of metabolic products into the environment). The products of producers are called primary products biocenosis.

Consumers first order They feed on producers and also spend the resulting organic substances on the metabolism and formation of their products. Consumers second order(predators), in turn, consume first-order consumers, etc. Usually in biocenoses there are consumers of several (n) orders. Since consumers form their products through the consumption of other organisms (consumers of previous orders and producers), it is called echo h new products . The total secondary production of the entire biocenosis always turns out to be less than the sum of the production values of all populations of consumers, since part of it is consumed by consumer-predators within the biocenosis itself.

Decomposers use the energy of organic substances contained in the bodies of dead producers and consumers (as well as in the metabolic products that they release into the environment during life). The decomposition of organic substances by reducing agents into simpler compounds and, ultimately, into mineral components is called destruction organic matter. Mineral and organic substances returned to the abiotic environment of the ecosystem due to the death of organisms and the activity of decomposers are called biogenic (i.e. formed from living organisms) and autochthonous (i.e. produced in the ecosystem itself). Mineral autochthonous substances are again used by producers to create primary products, i.e. re-engaged in the inner cycle of substances ecosystems.

Often the internal circulation of substances turns out to be even more complex (see Fig. 6). For example, heterotrophic producers (blue-green, some bacteria) simultaneously create primary production and function as decomposers. Many predators consume consumers not of one, but of all previous orders, as well as producers, decomposers, individuals of their own species (cannibalism) and inanimate organic matter; etc. This makes the flows of matter and energy in ecosystems nonlinear, creating a complexly branched " trophic (food) net "biocenosis.

Part of the products of producers, consumers and decomposers passes from the ecosystem into its environment ( export of products ). Exported products are used in other ecosystems. Some of the autochthonous and allochthonous substances are irretrievably lost from the internal circulation of the ecosystem, ending up in the deep layers of the soil, inaccessible to producers. As these nutrients accumulate, they gradually transform the biotope. Thus, the internal circulation of substances is not completely closed: it is accompanied by a constant, more or less intense exchange of substances and energy with the environment surrounding the ecosystem.

The internal cycle of energy in ecosystems is determined by the cycle of substances in which it is contained, as well as the relationship between the processes of energy supply from the outside and heat transfer to the environment. Therefore, it is even less closed, more dependent on the environmental conditions surrounding the ecosystem than the cycle of substances.

Physico-chemical methods

-Qualitative methods. Allows you to determine what substance is in the test sample. For example based on chromatography . -Quantitative methods. -Gravimetric method. The essence of the method is to determine the mass and percentage of any element, ion or chemical compound found in the test sample. - Titrimetric(volumetric) method. In this type of analysis, weighing is replaced by measuring volumes of both the substance being determined and the reagent used in this determination. Methods of titrimetric analysis are divided into 4 groups: a) methods of acid-base titration; b) precipitation methods; c) oxidation-reduction methods; d) complexation methods. - Colorimetric methods. Colorimetry- one of the simplest methods of absorption analysis. It is based on changes in the color shades of the test solution depending on the concentration. Colorimetric methods can be divided into visual colorimetry and photocolorimetry. - Express methods. Express methods include instrumental methods that allow you to determine contamination in a short period of time. These methods are widely used to determine background radiation in air and water monitoring systems. - Potentiometric methods are based on changing the electrode potential depending on the physical and chemical processes occurring in the solution. They are divided into: a) direct potentiometry (ionometry); b) potentiometric titration.

Biological monitoring methods

Bioindication - a method that allows one to judge the state of the environment based on the encounter, absence, and developmental characteristics of bioindicator organisms . Bioindicators are organisms whose presence, quantity or developmental characteristics serve as indicators of natural processes, conditions or anthropogenic changes in the environment. Conditions determined using bioindicators are called bioindication objects.

Biotesting - a method that allows, in laboratory conditions, to assess the quality of environmental objects using living organisms.

Assessment of biodiversity components - is a set of methods comparative analysis of biodiversity components .

Methods of statistical and mathematical data processing

Methods are used to process environmental monitoring data computing And mathematical biology (including mathematical modeling), as well as a wide range of information technologies .

Geographic Information Systems

GIS is a reflection of the general trend of linking environmental data to spatial objects. According to some experts, further integration of GIS and environmental monitoring will lead to the creation of powerful EIS (environmental information systems) with dense spatial reference.

19) Biological monitoring

Biological monitoring should be understood as a system of observation, assessment and forecast of any changes in biota caused by factors of anthropogenic origin.

The main object of observation of this type of monitoring is responses biological systems different levels and environmental factors affecting them. The primary task is to monitor the level of pollution of biota, in which responses or biological consequences associated with exposure to pollution are recorded within the framework of special subprograms.

Biologists have accumulated a large amount of information on the functioning of biological systems, both normally and in the case of the negative impact of anthropogenic factors. The structure of a biological monitoring program consists of separate subprograms based on the levels of organization of biological systems. Thus, genetic monitoring corresponds to the subcellular level of organization of biota, biochemical monitoring corresponds to the cellular level, physiological monitoring corresponds to the organismal level, and environmental biomonitoring corresponds to the population and biocenological (community) level. In addition to those listed, there are subprograms for monitoring biota pollution, biosphere productivity, endangered or on the verge of extinction species.

For each biomonitoring subprogram, its own observation methodology is developed and a certain set of functional characteristics is established. For example, biomonitoring programs at the organismal level use indicators such as nutrition, respiration, excretion and nitrogen balance, growth, reproduction, blood composition, and behavioral indicators of organisms. In biomonitoring programs at the population level, these are growth rates, reproduction, distribution and abundance of species, and population structure.

Population-level parameters are widely used to monitor lethal and sublethal concentrations of pollutants, depending on the goals of monitoring programs and the specific systems being monitored. In this case, the populations selected for observation should be part of the systems that are most exposed to pollutants.

Selecting species for this type of monitoring is challenging because detailed data on the biota of the study area is required to select species. The object of observation can be any group of organisms: from microflora to megafauna and seabirds. Preference is given to species that are sensitive to potential contaminants (even if they have limited ecological and commercial significance), representing different trophic levels, and keystone species if their role in the community is known. Selection difficulties are associated with the behavior of organisms depending on season, age and migration during tides. When selecting species, their spatial distribution and mobility are taken into account. The mobility of the selected species should be low so that immigration and emigration do not affect the final results. Sedentary species are preferred because if the species is highly mobile, data on population structure and growth will be of little value because the duration of exposure to the contaminant will be unknown due to possible avoidance of contaminated sites. Benthic system types are used more often because they are less variable spatially and temporally.

Biomonitoring at the community level. Let us recall that a community is usually understood as an association of populations that interact both with each other and with the environment. Biomass, abundance, species diversity, number of higher taxa, trophic structure, as well as community comparison results are used as indicators of community biomonitoring.

The criteria for assessing the ecological state of populations and communities are structural and functional indicators that characterize the state of plant and animal populations. Structural indicators in community monitoring are the number of individuals and the list of species in the community, their variability in space and time. The functional characteristic of a community includes the quality and quantity of energy flowing through the community.

Assessing the effects of pollutants at the ecosystem level involves using data obtained for the levels of the population or communities of which it is composed. However, this assessment may turn out to be incomplete, since with this approach there may be no data on changes in important variables that characterize the state of the ecosystem as an independent subunit of the hierarchical structure of living things.

The structural basis of an ecosystem is inorganic and organic substances, environmental factors (temperature, light, wind, etc.), producers, consumers and decomposers. The complex interdependent processes of ecosystem functioning are carried out through the flow of energy, food chains, nutrient cycling, changes in diversity, development and evolution in time and space.

When monitoring ecosystems, it is necessary to identify sensitive parts of the ecosystem, by which one could judge its condition. Another equally important approach is the creation of ecosystem simulation models.

Monitoring of changes in populations and biocenoses and their functioning under the influence of various types of anthropogenic impact is carried out in hospitals both in reference areas and in areas subject to anthropogenic impact. Of particular interest are observations of the accumulation by plants and animals of chemical substances released during industrial production, during emergency releases, or used in agriculture and forestry. Their migration along food chains and distribution across trophic levels in biocenoses located in various natural zones is traced.

From the point of view of information content, all biological monitoring routines are equally valuable and have no advantages over each other, but currently more attention is paid to environmental monitoring.

Important functions of biomonitoring are the development of early warning systems, diagnosis and prediction of changes in biological communities.

When developing early warning systems, it is necessary to select suitable organisms and create automated devices that make it possible to clearly identify the reaction of biota to anthropogenic changes in the natural environment. Such devices can be used to determine the quality of water in reservoirs and obtain operational information about the occurrence of a dangerous toxicological situation.

The diagnostic monitoring unit involves the detection, identification and determination of the concentration of pollutants in the biotic component based on the widespread use of monitor organisms.

Diagnosis data serves as an information base for predicting the evolution of living organisms. Forecasting makes it possible to establish the rate of accumulation of pollutants, the routes of their migration along food chains, and ultimately determine the future state of biological objects and their habitats.

The term "biological monitoring" was first proposed in 1980 at a workshop organized by the European Economic Community (EEC) in conjunction with the US National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) and the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) (Berlin, Yodaiken, Henman, 1984) in Luxembourg. This term refers to “the measurement and evaluation of chemical agents or their metabolites in tissues, secretions, secretions, and alveolar air to determine the magnitude of exposure and health risk by comparison with appropriate standards.” Monitoring is an action based on diagnostic procedures, repeated at certain intervals, having preventive and, if necessary, corrective functions.

Biological monitoring is one of the three most important activities necessary for the prevention of diseases caused by toxic factors or environmental pollution. Environmental monitoring and health surveillance serve the same purposes.

The sequence of events leading to the development of diseases of this kind can be schematically presented as follows: source - influencing chemical factor (agent) - internal dose received - biochemical or cellular effect - adverse effect on the body - disease. The relationship between different types of monitoring (biological, environmental and exposure) and health surveillance has been demonstrated. Determines the amount of toxic substances (e.g. industrial chemicals) in air, water, food or on surfaces in contact with skin. environmental monitoring.

As a result of the processes of absorption, distribution, metabolism and excretion, a certain part internal dose a toxic agent (ie, the amount of a substance absorbed or metabolized in the body over a certain period of time) ends up in body fluids, where it can be determined. When the internal dose acts on critical organ(which is adversely affected first or most severely) certain biochemical and cellular effects occur.

Biological monitoring and health surveillance involves determining the levels of chemical agents or their metabolites in the body by assessing their biochemical and cellular effects, as well as identifying symptoms of critical organ damage. They are also used to determine the extent of the disease. Biological monitoring can be divided into: (a) exposure monitoring and (b) effect monitoring, using internal dose and effect indicators respectively.

Depending on the chemical or biological parameter being analyzed, the term "internal dose" can be interpreted differently (Bernard and Lauwerys, 1987).

Firstly, it can refer to the amount of chemical absorbed in a short period of time, for example, during one work shift. Concentrations of pollutants in alveolar air can be determined directly during the work shift or the next day (blood and alveolar air samples can be stored for up to 16 hours).

Second, if a chemical has a long biological half-life (for example, metals in the circulatory system), then the internal dose value may reflect the amount of the substance taken into the body over several months.

For example, to obtain a reliable picture of the content of DDT in the body, it is enough to measure their content in the blood.

Along with instrumental methods for assessing environmental quality, bioindication (ecological indication) and biotesting methods have recently been widely used. These methods are based on the use of living organisms as test objects that are sensitive to specific environmental factors. Objects of environmental indication are called indicators

Ecological indicators in ecology are organisms that, by their presence (absence) in a given environment, indicate its specificity. All indicators are necessarily sgenoeca organisms, species with a narrow range of tolerance. Indicators can be divided into:

♦ panareal - exhibit indicator properties throughout the entire habitat, for example, reed can serve everywhere as an indicator of soils with excess moisture;

♦ regional - they exhibit indicator properties only within specific regions, for example, Scots pine in the Baltic states serves as an indicator of soil poverty, and in Karelia it serves as an indicator of the outcropping of rocks to the soil surface;

♦ local - exhibit indicator properties in the place where testing is carried out.

Depending on the indicator, the following types of bioindication are distinguished:

♦ aeroindication - indication of the state of atmospheric air;

♦ hydroindication - indication of water condition;

♦ lithoindication - indication of soil condition;

♦ galindication - indication of salinity level and others.

Let's look at some examples of bioindication

Examples of types of bioindication

The ecological characteristics of the environment can be evidenced not only by the species living in it, but also by their external features, for example, chlorosis and necrosis of plants. Currently, sanitary and epidemiological stations play the main role in monitoring the state of the environment. However, in order to obtain objective, integral assessments of environmental pollution, it is necessary to use not only instrumental methods, but also bioindication. Of course, biotesting, as a rule, does not make it possible to establish the entire spectrum of pollutants, but the very fact of the presence of pollution in the environment allows you to record quickly enough

Bioindication allows you to:

♦ continuous monitoring of the state of the environment (indicator organisms, constantly being in a given environment, exchange matter and energy with it and, regardless of what time of day or day of the week the act of environmental pollution occurred, signal about it by changes in their condition or death);

♦ objective control over the state of the environment (any fact of pollution will inevitably cause changes in their condition or death),

♦ integral control over the state of the environment (indicators react to any elements dangerous to their existence, so their death always clearly indicates environmental pollution).

To solve the problems of bioindication and related problems of environmental forecasting, it is necessary to pay attention to four main aspects:

♦ development of appropriate methods and models;

♦ identification of system-forming factors;

♦ formulation of appropriate forecasting goals,

♦ assessing the reliability of the results obtained.

Monitoring in biological research communication. Biological monitoring methods

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