The more we move away from the event, the more difficult it is to restore it. In addition, scientists learn ancient history only from surviving lists of retellings of previous generations. Passing through other hands, history is distorted, new myths appear, which are now accepted as truth. There are many stereotypes about Ancient Rome. Let's try to deal with some of them.

1. The most famous misconception that arose in subsequent centuries and was replicated in popular art is the signs of killing or pardoning gladiators. We told the story of the emergence of this misconception in the article. And here we only note that only the emperor could grant life to a gladiator. He extended his thumb, pointing at the heart and inviting the enemy to pierce it. Or he clenched his hand into a fist, as if hiding a sword - giving a sign of pardon.

2. By the way, not only men performed in the arena. Gladiatrix - female gladiators - were no less popular and even more spectacular. The women fought just as zealously, with mad passion and rage. Women most often came from the lower strata to become gladiators, hoping to gain fame and money. They were mentioned for the first time during the time of Nero, and scientists discovered the latest information during the reign of Trajan and Flavius. Severius banned the appearance of women in the arena, but... The ban, it seems, was not very strict.

3. A popular myth speaks of the Romans' intemperance in food. It is generally accepted that they feasted constantly, consuming incredible amounts of food. Moreover, it was even customary to regularly go to a special room called a vomitorium, where vomiting was induced using peacock feathers. And then, with an empty stomach, it was fashionable to continue the feast. It turned out that this was just a translation error, and the wide passages in amphitheaters were called vomitorium.

4. The word plebeians has now acquired a negative, disparaging connotation. Although in reality it was just a certain class of citizens of Rome. Unlike the patricians, they had somewhat narrower rights. But the plebeians often had significantly more money and enjoyed no less respect. The only thing was that it was impossible to change your class for money. In addition, they were free and were citizens, which was very important then. Especially considering that almost half of the population were slaves.

5. Speaking of slaves. In Ancient Rome, special laws were even passed requiring owners to do everything to ensure that their slaves did not stand out among citizens. After all, they could then notice how many of them there are... Therefore, slaves often looked better than many free people. They could also use public institutions such as baths, stadiums and theaters, wear ordinary clothes, etc.

6. Clothing in Rome was very diverse. Much in this regard was borrowed from the Greeks. In particular, the usual informal dress even for senators was a regular tunic. This very practical piece resembled a blouse, was worn over the head and tied at the waist. The length could vary somewhat, but most often it was knee-length. The status of senators was confirmed by red stripes - one or two - on the chest and back. The toga was a long piece of fabric, which had to be wrapped in a special way. Besides everything else, it was a terribly uncomfortable outfit. Then it was used only on holidays or official events. By the way, the color red was a great privilege, and purple clothes were intended only for the emperor.

7. Shakespeare attributed the famous phrase to Gaius Julius Caesar. Scientists believe that Brutus’ betrayal was not a surprise to Caesar, nor was the entire conspiracy as a whole. Caesar then went to the Senate deliberately. And his dying words were a warning that a similar fate would befall others...

8. Another popular picture from stories about Ancient Rome. Nero sets fire to Rome and accompanies the fire on the violin from the hill. Research by historians has shown that at this time Nero was in his native Antium, where he received a message about the fire. After which he went to Rome, ordered an investigation, the results of which ordered the punishment of a certain sect, whose followers were called Christians. The fire broke out in warehouses containing goods.

9. Despite its southern location, cold seasons occurred in Ancient Rome. In which the issue of insulation becomes especially acute. Everything comes into play here - warm clothes, furs, hats, heated floors. Exactly! Rome already had warm floors and central heating. When building houses, they laid a small underground floor underneath them, in which slaves maintained, if necessary, even burning of coals.

10. Concrete was actively used in Rome. Its composition included sand, pumice, tuff, and lime. There were many options for use - for pouring floors, finishing walls, filling partitions. But there were also designs in a modern style. In this case, the concrete was poured into the formwork, which was removed after hardening. This is exactly how the Pantheon was built under Hadrian. By the way, the building still stands today! Although it is incorrect to say that concrete is a purely Roman invention, it was used 6 thousand years ago in Mesopotamia.

11. In addition to the famous roads, aqueducts became another sign of Rome. Their height was usually at least 20 meters. This made it possible to avoid theft of clean drinking water. And it was a good protection against enemies who could poison the water. By the way, many of the aqueducts have not only survived, they are also in operation today!

12. In Rome, for the first time, they began to register marriages in a special book, allowing the newlyweds to sign autographs under the entry. The tradition of putting on rings as a sign of marriage was also born.

13. There was no soap in Rome. They used various herbal mixtures and clays. Another popular method used in thermal baths was cleansing with olive oil. The oil was applied to the skin and then scraped off with olive wood spatulas. At the same time, dirt and dead skin cells were removed, and it was also moisturized and nourished. And in Rome they actively used aromatic substances. Nowadays you can easily buy perfume in Minsk or Moscow, arrange delivery throughout Belarus, or order it from France. The Romans were deprived of such service. At the same time, prices for incense reached unrealistic heights, unlike today. It is worth rejoicing at the development of modern technologies that allow you to choose a product without leaving your home, make a payment, easily receive it - and smell like a real patrician!

14. At the time of the heyday of Ancient Rome, about 50 million people lived on Earth. Of these, a million were Romans. Interestingly, London reached the same population only in the 19th century. And now the population of Rome is only 2.7 million.

15. A famous legend says that Emperor Alba had a Vestal Virgin daughter. The priestesses of Vesta enjoyed special honor, but were required to maintain virginity. Even violence was not considered a mitigating circumstance for breaking a vow, which was followed by execution. But the Vestal Virgin, seduced by Mars, was not touched, although the twins she gave birth to were thrown into the Tiber. They were picked up and fed by a she-wolf. Then the guys came to the place on the hills and founded Rome. And Romulus got rid of his brother Rem... And the villainous scientists say that the Etruscans came up with the name for the settlement. For them, this word simply meant a river, or power...

16. Emperor Trajan, during his reign in 97-117, ordered the construction of a building where more than 150 shops and shops were located on several floors. This is how the first supermarket appeared, where they sold everything from buns to horses.

17. Stories about the cruelty of the Spartans towards their children became legendary. But the Romans were no softer. After birth, the child was brought to the intended father. If he picked up the baby, he thereby recognized the child and assumed certain obligations for upbringing and maintenance. Otherwise, this meant refusal, and the cub could even be taken out of town and left to die.

18. Disgraceful crimes, for which they were even deprived of citizenship, were escaping from the army, self-mutilation in order to “get off” and tax evasion!

19. It is generally accepted that the main reason for the fall of Rome was the attack of the barbarians. In fact, the empire began to fall apart long before that. And the reasons were economic. In particular, severe inflation occurred, during which over 80 years grain prices rose from 16 drachmas per measure to 120,000!

20. In Rome there was a concept of divorce. Moreover, it was accompanied by the division of property. The woman received everything that she brought to her husband’s house, and was also paid a certain compensation. But the children always remained with their father.

Urbi et Orbi - “To the City and the World.” I used this ancient Roman expression in the title of my story about the capital of the great ancient Empire, the Papal State, the Kingdom of Italy and modern Italy. Despite such an ambitious phrase, in fact my notes are very modest and fragmentary. I got to know Rome in total during just one day; Naturally, this acquaintance was superficial and spotty. Figuratively speaking, I only tasted a few small pieces of the large, complex and varied dish called “Rome”. And I was absolutely delighted. My admiration is based on an unusual, complex perception of Rome as a city that is epically monumental and at the same time light and comfortable.

I came to Rome as part of a group tour at the end of September 2013, starting in Rimini. The road takes about 5 hours and passes through three Italian regions - Emilia-Romagna, Umbria and Lazio. I consider the most picturesque part to be the Umbrian part - where the Apennines reached their greatest heights. But it was too difficult to take photographs there. Therefore, I will show you a few pictures taken in the capital region of Lazio:

These views are also beautiful, thanks to the undulating topography and abundance of forests.

We arrived in Rome in the afternoon - and immediately, as they say, from the ship to the ball, that is, from the bus to the excursion. The schedule was generally very busy, including a bus and walking tour of the city at night. But more on that later. In my story, I divided the sights of Rome into several blocks, depending on the theme, history or geography.

Monuments of Ancient Rome

Using the chronological principle, I will first talk about Ancient Rome. Let me remind you that Rome was founded in 753 BC. (the date is controversial, but now, in principle, it does not matter). The large number of archaeological sites is due not only and not so much to the antiquity of Rome, but to its status as the capital of a giant power. Moreover, the “weight” of Rome was such that its population exceeded the population of all other cities of the Apennine Peninsula combined. More than a million people lived in Ancient Rome at the peak of its power!

Coliseum

The most representative and recognizable object of Ancient Rome is the Colosseum, a colossal (its name, according to one of the etymological versions, comes precisely from this word) amphitheater built in the second half of the 1st century AD. This period precisely corresponds to the apogee of power of the Roman Empire. The Colosseum is the material embodiment of the famous populist slogan “bread and circuses!”

The Colosseum was partially destroyed by an earthquake in the 14th century, after which it began to be actively dismantled for building material. But this building still retains its majestic scale. Of course, its purpose deserves condemnation: it is difficult and terrible to imagine how many people and animals were killed and maimed in its arena over several centuries. But I would like to draw your attention to something else: the amphitheater with a capacity of more than 50 thousand spectators was organized in such a way that it was filled and emptied in just 15 minutes! This is a striking example of the Roman order, which European civilization never reached. I have been to modern stadiums and I know how much time it now takes for all the spectators to exit.

Big Circus

Not far (10 minutes walk) from the Colosseum are the ruins of the Circus Maximus:

It was built back in 329 BC. and was the largest hippodrome in the Empire. But its “highlight” is different: in even more ancient times, at the dawn of the city’s history, a remarkable legendary event took place at this place called “the abduction of the Sabine women” (later I will specifically present this legend in a frivolous style). For some reason, the ancient Romans had a shortage of women in a long period of the city’s history. Then they kidnapped women from the neighboring Latin tribe of Sabines, whose men were drunk at a feast organized by the Romans. Having sobered up, the Sabines became angry and set off on a campaign against Rome. During a stubborn battle, when victory was leaning towards the Sabines, women - newly minted Romans - appeared on the battlefield and begged their former fellow tribesmen to leave them. Well, if these women instinctively dreamed of a great future for their descendants, then this choice was optimal.

Forums

The next important object is Forums:

This word comes from the ancient Roman foris, that is, “beyond.” This means “outside one’s home,” that is, a public place. There were temples, markets, squares, that is, elements of the political, religious and economic life of Rome. Here was the Great Cloaca, part of the city's extensive sewerage system; the name has become a household name. And I will also note that there was a small temple (now ruins) called the “Navel of the City” - the center of Rome. Considering the mentality of the Romans, we can say that this was the Navel of the Earth.

Triumphal Arch

The triumphal arch of Constantine is one of the key monuments of Ancient Rome, reproduced an infinite number of times by subsequent European civilization in the 19th century:

The arch was erected under Emperor Constantine at the beginning of the 4th century and is notable for being the only Roman triumphal arch built to mark victory in a civil war. It can be considered a clear indicator of the decline of the Empire, torn apart by internal conflicts.

Pantheon

Finally, another monument of Ancient Rome, which I will report on in my story, is a “bridge” between antiquity and the Christian era. This is the Pantheon.

Next to the Pantheon stands an ancient Egyptian obelisk; in total there are 13 of them in Rome. Almost all of them are crowned with crosses as a sign of belonging to the new era. But let's return to the Pantheon. This temple structure was created in 125 A.D. under Emperor Hadrian. A magnificent example of ancient Roman building art, which easily holds a dome with a diameter of 43 meters. It is held in place by concrete, a material invented by the Romans. The dome is unusual in that there is a hole in the middle with a diameter of 9 meters. Thanks to it, in sunny weather, the center of the temple seems to be pierced by a column of light. As for the rain, if it is shallow, the drops are blown out due to the strong upward flow of air. During heavy rain, water flows down the floor into special holes.

At the beginning of the 7th century, the Pantheon became the Christian Church of St. Mary and the Martyrs. According to legend, the bones of martyrs, brought here on 28 carts, are kept under the altar. Now there are memorials to Raphael and two Italian Kings - Victor Emmanuel II (the inscription “father of the nation” is dedicated to him, because during his reign the country was unified in 1861) and Umberto I. The walls of the temple are decorated with very rare red Verona marble.

Obelisk on an elephant pedestal

And at the end of the antique section, I will demonstrate another obelisk (not far from the Pantheon), which I liked thanks to the elephant pedestal:

It is located in the center of Piazza Minerva (the Roman name for the ancient Greek goddess Pallas Athena). And this monument is curious in that it served as the prototype for the elephant on thin long legs, which is visible in the background of one of the most famous paintings by Salvador Dali entitled “A dream caused by the flight of a bee around a pomegranate, a second before awakening.” The monument itself was created in 1667 by the Italian sculptor Giovanni Bernini. It is assumed that the source of inspiration for the creation of the sculpture could have been a woodcut illustration from the anonymous novel of the late 15th century, “The Hypnerotomachy of Poliphilus.” The obelisk was moved from the former temple of Isis. Locals call this sculptural composition il pulcin della Minerva, since the elephant resembles a pig.

Various attractions in the center of Rome

In this section I will show several places in the center of Rome that I remember, which are not geographically related to each other.

Piazza Navona

Piazza Navona is shaped like a stadium - and, indeed, in ancient times it was used for sporting events. The square was a favorite place for fairs, holidays and recreation for the Romans. The main decorations of the square are the Church of St. Agnes (mid-17th century) and three fountains. The picture shows the church and the Moor's fountain:

The church building has an interesting feature - a curved facade. This, one might say, is the signature style of the architect Francesco Borromini. I am not very versed in such subtleties, but I heard that the architect considered this curvature to be a manifestation of the Divine Spirit (he called it the Divine wave).

The second fountain is dedicated to Neptune:

And the third one is the most outstanding. It is called the Fountain of the Four Rivers (Fontana dei Quattro Fiumi); symbolically depicts the main rivers of the four parts of the world known in the mid-17th century - the Nile (Africa), the Ganges (Asia), the Danube (Europe) and La Plata (America). In the center is an Egyptian obelisk. I'll show you a few fragments of the fountain.

Ganges holds a long oar as a sign of the river's navigability:

La Plata sits on a pile of silver coins (the word "plata" means "silver" in Spanish); Danube on the right:

The Danube, as the closest river to Rome, holds the Papal coat of arms in its right hand:

The Nile is identified by a characteristic feature - the face is covered with a cloth as a sign that no one knows the location of the sources of this river.

Lion (apparently from Africa):

Piazza Venezia and the Italian Unification Monument

Its name comes from the palace where the embassy of the Venetian Republic was located; this can be guessed from her coat of arms above the portal. Benito Mussolini, whose theatrical and oratorical abilities are known to everyone, loved to speak from the balcony above the portal.

Opposite the Venetian palace there is a monument dedicated to the unification of Italy:

The monument is truly grandiose (monstrous). It is called Vittoriano in honor of King Victor Emmanuel II, whose 12-meter bronze statue is in the center. The royal figure is surrounded by six 6-meter statues representing Italian values: bronze Thought and Action and marble Sacrifice, Right, Strength and Concord.

Not far from the square stands the pretty Church of the Holy Name of Mary in the Trajan Forum (I remember it, among other things, because of its unusually complex name):

Capitoline Hill and trees of Rome

After the Vittoriano memorial, we came to the Capitoline Hill, to the Palazzo Senatorio. This Rome City Hall , in front of which stands a bronze statue of Emperor Marcus Aurelius:

There I first paid special attention to a symbol that can be found everywhere in Rome. This is perhaps the most famous abbreviation in European civilization, originating from Rome: S.P.Q.R., that is, probably Senatus Populusque Romanus (“Senate and Citizens of Rome”). Although the exact meaning is not known for certain. The influence of Rome on European and Russian history is enormous - through religions, political systems (republic and Empire), language and writing, law, philosophy, technology, art and much, much more.

Compared to many European capitals, Rome cannot be called a city full of woody vegetation. Nevertheless, in many places (including on the roofs of houses) beautiful trees delight the eye. They say that the symbol of Ancient Rome was the oak tree - and now there are almost no oak trees in the city. The symbol of medieval Papal Rome was the elm, and there are almost none of them either. The symbol of Royal Rome was the plane tree, and the symbol of Mussolini’s Rome was the Mediterranean pine tree (there is even a symphonic poem “Pines of Rome” written in 1924). There are a lot of them in the city, as well as cypresses, oleanders and many other beautiful trees.

Walk along the Tiber

I will devote the next section of my description of Rome to a walk along the Tiber River. For me, such walks are a kind of ritual, accompanied by the inevitable toss of a coin.

Castle and Bridge of Sant'Angelo

The walk started from the San Angelo Bridge, which is quite close to St. Peter's Square (10 minutes walk):

The bridge leads to the castle of the same name. Castel Sant'Angelo was built on the basis of an original building from the 2nd century, and acquired its current appearance in general terms in the 14th century as a fortress. The castle is topped with a statue of the Archangel Michael. During the Renaissance there was an extremely tightly guarded prison; Only one prisoner escaped from it, and this was the famous sculptor and artist Benvenuto Cellini.

I'm going down the Tiber; However, for the time being, the flow of muddy green water is practically invisible. At first I intended to go down to the lower embankment, but changed my mind. Firstly, the surrounding area is less visible from there; secondly, I noticed a lot of beggars there. In general, the retaining walls of the embankment do not look very nice, especially because of the graffiti. It is better to walk along the upper embankment, along the plane tree alley, from where the views are much more pleasant.

Bridges across the Tiber in the city center alternate one after another:

Here I picked up an image of a wall without graffiti; The green spaces of Rome are clearly visible:

Tiberina Island and Palatino Bridge

Then the island of Tiberina appears before your eyes, shaped very similar to a boat. On the right in the photo is the Cestio Bridge - one of the oldest in Rome. It was built in the middle of the 1st century BC; the current species is naturally much younger. About 20 years older is the Fabricio Bridge, which connects the other side of the Tiberina with the embankment where the main synagogue of Rome is located.

The island has an interesting history. Once upon a time, in the early times of Ancient Rome, Tiberina had a bad reputation. And one day, according to legend, a snake crawled out of a boat sailing along the Tiber, which was considered a symbol of the physician god Aesculapius. The Romans built a sanctuary of Aesculapius here, and gave the island the shape of a boat, girding the “sides” of the shore with travertine. Since 1584, there has been a large hospital of St. Bartholomew on Tiberina called Fatebenefratelli: this compound word consists of three - fate bene fratelli, that is, “do good, brothers.” It is curious that this hospital, along with many attractions of Rome, is present in the opening frames of the famous comedy “The Incredible Adventures of Italians in Russia.”

The Cestio Bridge from the other side, where a small artificial threshold is built on the Tiber:

A little further away from the island of Tiberina is the Palatino Bridge, where I completed my walk along the river:

Near this bridge there is a remnant of an older one, which seemed very picturesque to me:

Vatican City - State of the Holy See

From Ancient Rome I am transported to Papal Rome. Rome was once the capital of a fairly large and very influential Papal State. After the unification of Italy in 1870, the Holy See lost almost its entire territory and for quite a long time such a state did not exist; it was formally established as a result of a special concordat with the Mussolini government. Vatican City (auxiliary sovereign territory of the Holy See) is the smallest state in the world, with an area of ​​only 44 hectares. It is headed by the supreme hierarch of the Catholic Church - the Pope. By the way, the summer residence of the Popes is located in a town not far from the capital.

For me, visiting the Vatican consisted of two stages - museums and St. Peter's Basilica.

Vatican Museums

The museums are located in a huge architectural complex called the Apostolic Palace, or the Palace of Sixtus V. It houses the Papal Apartments, Vatican government offices, chapels, a library, and numerous internal palaces. We visited one of these internal palaces - the famous Belvedere, whose name naturally multiplied throughout Europe (for example, there are palaces with the same name in) and Russia.

The inner square of the Belvedere was named Cortile della Pigna for the corresponding decorative element:

I liked this decoration so much that I cannot deny myself the pleasure of giving a larger view of it:

A giant bronze pine cone adorned the fountain near the great Temple of Isis in Roman times; water flowed abundantly from its top. In the Middle Ages, the cone was moved to Old St. Peter's Basilica, where it was seen by Dante, who later used the image of the cone to describe the Old Testament King and hunter Nimrod in the Divine Comedy. In the 15th century the cone was moved to its current location. On the sides of the cone are two bronze peacocks taken from the mausoleum of Emperor Hadrian in the Castel Sant'Angelo. By the way, the IX district of Rome Pigna (rione Pigna) was named after this pine cone.

The Belvedere Palace houses the Pius Clement Museum, dedicated to sculptures. Here you can see Roman copies of the famous Greek statues of Apollo (which received the “prefix” Belvedere) and Laocoon with his sons in the suffocating embrace of snakes. I was interested in the images of animals; although I must say right away that they are quite brutal. This, apparently, is the specificity of the Roman view of the world around us:

Next we move to the Papal Palace, where we examine two interesting rooms (actually more, but I remember just two). The first is a gallery of geographical maps. It was created in 1578–1580 by the Italian cartographer Ignazio Danti by order of Pope Gregory XIII, patron of the sciences and arts. The maps show the regions of Italy and the Papal States. I don’t really like the Italian art and cartographic school (in comparison with the Dutch one), but a number of interesting subjects can be noted:

The ceiling of the gallery deserves special attention, although, in my opinion, it is physically quite difficult to examine it:

At the end of the gallery above the door is the coat of arms of Pope Gregory XIII:

A very colorful combination of a dragon with the papal tiara and the keys to heaven. By the way, it was this Pope who introduced a new calendar, named in his honor.

The main attraction of the Papal Palace is the Sistine Chapel. A lot has been written about her; I will just note that this is where the conclave meets, at which the cardinals elect a new Pope. A place of exceptional importance for more than a billion people in the world. The Sistine Chapel was painted by Michelangelo, and one of the pictorial elements features his self-portrait. Saint Bartholomew is holding his skin in his hands (which was torn from him alive, but Bartholomew in the picture, of course, is in his normal form), and the face on this skin belongs to the artist himself.

I will also add an image of one of the fragments of the painting - the fresco “The Creation of Adam”. The viewer's attention, as a rule, is concentrated on the contact between God and his first human creation - Adam. But who is depicted behind God? Who is this person who looks at Adam so hostilely, or at least with a bold challenge?..

St. Peter's Square and Basilica

This was followed by a tour of St. Peter's Cathedral. But first I will mentally go outside to St. Peter's Square to show the building of the Cathedral:

The cathedral is one of the largest Christian churches in the world (capacity 60 thousand); its architecture set a widespread church style. In front of him stretches in the form of two symmetrical semicircles St. Peter's Square, where, according to legend, in 67 AD. the apostle was executed, whose relics are kept under the altar of the Cathedral. The ancient Egyptian obelisk was brought to Rome by Caligula.

A huge number of articles have been written about the Council, including on the Internet; I don’t think it’s necessary to repeat them. Personally, what I remember most is the dome of the Cathedral, which creates an incredibly light feeling. In general, the bright Cathedral gave me the impression of something like an aircraft, ready to take off into the air. Under the dome there is a bronze canopy 29 meters high, whose ceiling is decorated with a dove - the Holy Spirit. Under the canopy is the pulpit of St. Peter.

Of course, the famous Pietà sculpture by Michelangelo (the only work signed by the master) attracts attention: the mournful Mother of God holds the body of her Son in her arms. Madonna's face and figure are strikingly alive. Unfortunately, the sculpture is covered with glass for security reasons, as it was attempted by a psychopath.

Finally, due to my worldview, I noted in my memory the memorial of the last representatives of the Scottish and British Royal Stuart family (pretender James III and his two sons):

There are no paintings in the Cathedral (graphics are represented by frescoes), so you can take photographs freely, including with flash.

Night Rome and Trevi Fountain

I conclude my fragmentary notes with a short story about Rome at night. More precisely, evening-twilight. I don't like looking at big cities in the dark, but Rome was an exception.

During an evening walk, I saw the baroque Spanish Steps - 138 steps leading from the French Trinity Church to the Spanish Square. By the way, this is a popular name; officially it is called the “staircase to Trinita dei Monti”. Unfortunately, I can't show a photo of it because it was simply impossible to get a fairly close-up shot of the staircase without a huge number of people, and I wouldn't want to show that kind of image. It is not difficult to find countless photographs of the Spanish Steps on the Internet.

The most famous fountain in Rome is called Trevi: baroque (or, using the Portuguese original source of the word, “irregularly shaped pearl”) in its purest form. The name of the fountain comes from the fact that it was located at the junction of three roads - tre vie. In the center of the fountain is Neptune. There is a belief that the person who threw a coin at him will come to Rome again. Two coins - a love meeting. Three - marriage. Four coins - wealth. Five coins - separation. Even before arriving in Rome I had forgotten the exact wording; I won’t say how many coins I threw in in the end.

And finally, just a view of Old Rome at night. Here they treat the lighting of the historical center with great care; no colorful neon lights. The soft yellow light gives the Eternal City an image of antiquity and calm grandeur.

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Ancient Rome occupies a mythical place in our imagination. This is the land of the historical epics Ben-Hur and Gladiator, in which men in gilded armor ride chariots and emperors sit majestically on thrones and are fed delicious grapes.

However, real life in ancient Rome was less glamorous. Before the advent of modern sanitation and medicine, living an average day here was no easy task and far more disgusting than you might imagine.

1. The ancient Romans rinsed their mouths with urine

In ancient Rome, urine was in such great demand that the government decided to impose a special tax on its sale. There were people who earned their living exclusively by collecting urine. Some collected urine from public toilets, others went door to door with a large vat and asked people to contribute to filling it.

“Why did they need so much urine?” - you ask. The ancient Romans had many uses for urine; some of them will strike your imagination and cause not the most pleasant feelings. For example, the inhabitants of Ancient Rome soaked their clothes in urine. The workers filled a bathtub of clothes with their own urine, after which one poor fellow had to trample on things to wash them of dirt.

However, this is nothing compared to how they brushed their teeth. In some regions, people used urine as a mouthwash; they claimed that urine had a bleaching effect. A poem by a Roman poet has survived to this day, ridiculing his enemy with a snow-white smile: “Your teeth are so polished, but this only means that you are full of urine.”

2. General sponge for wiping

Ancient Rome has always been praised for its advances in plumbing. At that time, every city had public toilets and full sewer systems, something that even later societies could not boast of. Some may think that this was a tragic loss of advanced technology, but do not rush to get upset. There was one pretty good reason why no one else took advantage of the Romans' plumbing achievements.

But the worst thing happened when a person emptied his colon. In every public toilet used by dozens of people, you could find just one sponge on a stick, which was used to wipe the backside. This device has never been washed, despite the fact that it has been used by an incredible number of people.

3. Public toilets regularly exploded

Anyone who went into an ancient Roman toilet to relieve themselves had every chance of dying, and here's why.

The first problem was that the creatures that lived in the sewer systems would crawl out and bite people in various places while they were doing their thing. The second reason is even worse. Massive amounts of methane accumulated in public toilets, which sometimes ignited and exploded.

Toilets were such a dangerous place that people resorted to magic to try to stay alive after visiting them. Magic spells were discovered on the walls of public toilets that were intended to keep demons at bay. Some toilets housed statues of Fortuna, the goddess of fortune, who was supposed to protect visitors from various accidents. Before going to the toilet, people turned to her in prayer.

4 Gladiator Blood Was Used As Medicine

Ancient Roman medicine also had a huge number of bizarre features.

Some Roman authors write that in Ancient Rome people often collected the blood of killed gladiators and sold it as medicine. They believed that the blood of gladiators could cure epilepsy, so they took it as a medicine. This approach is considered the most humane and civilized, since there were people who cut out the livers of gladiators and ate them raw.

All this became so popular and commonplace that when gladiator fights were banned in Rome, people continued to be treated with the blood of beheaded prisoners of war. Strangely, some Roman doctors report that this method of treatment was indeed quite effective. They claim to have witnessed people who suffered from epileptic seizures drink human blood and recover.

5. Women in Ancient Rome smeared dead, dead skin cells from gladiators on their faces.

Gladiators who lost a fight became a cure for epileptics, while the winners became aphrodisiacs. In ancient Roman times, it was almost impossible to get soap, so athletes washed themselves by covering their bodies with oil and removing dead skin cells using a special device - a strigil.

As a rule, the scraped dirt was not thrown away if you were a gladiator. It was bottled and sold to women as an aphrodisiac. Representatives of the fair sex often used it instead of face cream. They smeared their faces with the dead skin cells of gladiators, hoping that this would make them irresistible and attractive to men.

6. Pompeii was filled with obscene works of art

The volcanic eruption that hit Pompeii allowed the city to survive perfectly to this day. When archaeologists first studied it, they discovered things that were so indecent that they were hidden from the public.

Pompeii was filled with works of art that were so obscene that they were locked away in a secret room for hundreds of years, away from public view. Archaeologists have found many of the craziest erotic works of art. One of them (a statue), for example, depicted the ancient Greek god Pan having sex with a goat.

There were also many prostitutes in Pompeii, who left many obscene signs on the paved streets. Today, walking along the streets of Pompeii, you can see what the ancient Romans saw every day - a penis pointing towards the nearest brothel.

7. The ancient Romans painted penises in dangerous places to attract good luck.

Male genitals were very popular in Rome. They proudly depicted them wherever possible, and sometimes even wore them around their necks in the form of pendants. Usually boys did this, but not only for the sake of beauty. According to ancient Roman writings, copper penises protected them from all kinds of dangers.

However, the ancient Romans decided not to stop there. They painted male genitalia to attract good luck in places considered risky for travelers, such as winding roads and fragile bridges.

8. The Romans were the first in history to show bare bottoms

Josephus, a Jewish priest, wrote that the Romans were the first in history to show bare bottoms. This act caused riots in Jerusalem.

During the Jewish Passover, Roman soldiers were sent to Jerusalem to pacify the people in case they decided to rebel. They were supposed to maintain order, but one of them did something that, on the contrary, led to its disruption. According to Josephus, the Roman soldier lifted the back hem of his robe, turned his back to the inhabitants of the city, crouched down and made a loud noise, which was accompanied by a terrible stench. He did this in the place where the sacrifice was performed.

The Jews were furious. First, they demanded that the soldier be punished, after which they began to throw stones at the Romans. Soon a real riot broke out in Jerusalem - and a gesture was born that, as it turned out, would live for millennia.

9. The Romans induced vomiting to continue gorging on food.

According to Seneca, during feasts the Romans ate until they were completely exhausted, after which they induced a gag reflex in order to continue the feast.

Some people vomited into empty bowls that were placed on the table specifically for this purpose, others did not particularly worry about the rules of decency and vomited the contents of their stomachs directly onto the floor, after which they calmly returned to their food.

Who could not be envied during all these feasts were the slaves. Imagine how terrible their job was.

10. Roman charioteers drank energy drinks made from goat dung.

The ancient Romans didn't have bandages or adhesive plasters, so they found another way to heal wounds. According to Pliny the Elder, the inhabitants of Ancient Rome preferred to apply goat dung to wounds and scratches. It was collected and stored for future use in the spring. But the most effective in “emergency situations” was still fresh excrement.

However, this is not the worst way to use goat manure. Roman charioteers drank it to increase energy levels in the body. They either boiled goat manure in vinegar or ground it into powder and mixed it with their drinks.

It wasn't just poor people who did this. According to Pliny, no one loved drinking goat dung more than Emperor Nero.

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What and how did the Romans and legionnaires of Rome eat?

Most are accustomed to the fact that in his house there is always ice cream, cold beer, frozen meat and shrimp from the other side of the world. But this was not always the case, or rather, this state of affairs became the norm for the USA in the mid-twentieth century, for the USSR most likely by the 70s of the twentieth century, in many regions of Asia, the Middle East and Africa they still live as in the middle ages. century or in Ancient Rome. From what? Because it was then that home refrigerators became widespread, let’s add huge industrial refrigerators, where the refrigerated train enters and disappears, unloading into the smallest refrigeration chamber. What was life like before the invention of the refrigeration machine in 1810? Yes, Sir Leslie made his ice maker during the reign of Napoleon, I didn’t make a mistake. We lived the same way as always for tens of thousands of years; refrigeration technology only became available in the 70s of the 19th century. made it possible to begin transporting frozen lamb and beef from New Zealand, Australia and Argentina and Brazil to Europe, and developed only at the beginning of the twentieth century, the spread of refrigerators in particular helped to organize that massacre of the First World War, because it was already possible to feed so many soldiers. And before that, the main food product was those that can be eaten immediately and canned, and the main preservative is salt, which is why there have been thousands of wars and riots throughout history because of it. That is, salted meat and fish, dried meat and fish, grain and everything that can be made from it, in particular porridge and seasonal vegetables and fruits. Therefore, when we talk about historical cuisine, do not expect much variety, although Ancient Rome has something to surprise you with, and you will be surprised how similar the ancient Romans were to the Russians in nutrition.

Bread and cereals were naturally the main products in the ancient world; hunger was considered a lack of bread. Stews and porridges were prepared from cereals, such as maza - a mixture of flour, honey, salt, olive oil and water or turon - a mixture of flour, grated cheese and honey. Many foods were sprinkled with barley flour before cooking, legumes were added, the main early dish was pulse - a thick spelled porridge boiled in water or milk, this dish was so typical of the Roman that Plautus called the Romans “pultiphagones”. By the 5th century BC, public bakeries began to appear in the rich cities of the ancient world, and bread was added to the staple food product, porridge. Barley bread (very healthy) was considered the food of the poor at that time; the more prosperous preferred wheat bread. Well-known varieties of bread: white wheat made from fine flour (panis siligneus/candidus), white of medium quality from coarser flour (panis secundarius) and black, very hard, made from wholemeal flour (panis plebeius - “folk”, rusticus - “peasant” ", sordidus - "dirty-dark"). The third class also included legionnaires’ bread, which was more like crackers (panis castrensis - “camp bread”), which they baked for themselves during camps. Depending on the method of preparation, the bread was called baked or podzol - baked under hot ashes. Initially, wheat in Ancient Rome meant emmer; emmer was later replaced by cultivated wheat. Rye was almost never widespread in the Mediterranean region, but due to its frost resistance, from the 2nd century it began to be grown more and more in the northern provinces of the empire. Oats were also considered an inferior grain and were grown primarily as animal feed; according to Pliny, oats were cultivated as a food only in Germany. Barley was used primarily as livestock feed and less often as food: in the early period of Rome, barley porridge was the food of the poor; for legionnaires, a diet of barley was considered a punishment; legionnaires baked square bread for ease of transportation. Gladiators, on the contrary, were prescribed a barley-bean diet to build fat so as not to bleed profusely from wounds.

Already in the Bronze Age, a large number of vegetables were known and used. Usually they were seasoned with spices, sometimes lamb or beef was added to vegetable dishes, but the meat of domestic animals was expensive, and hunting trophies were widely used - the meat of wild animals and birds, which were then found in abundance. The most beloved and widespread meat was pork. Many will be surprised, especially the residents of one territory that claims primacy in this dish: the national soups of the ancient Romans were a variety of cabbage soup and borscht - especially for them, a lot of cabbage and beets, as well as onions, were grown on agricultural estates. Shchi and borscht were prepared with meat (these soups with pork and lard were especially popular; lamb and other types of meat and poultry were less popular - but this was due to the abundance and local customs of many ancient Roman provinces), as well as fish from various types of river and sea ​​fish, a variety of seafood and lean ones with the addition of only olive oil and all sorts of local herbs. Another surprising thing for those who like to talk about the antiquity of the customs of certain regions: the Romans prepared various kvass (most often from barley, rye and beets) as drinks; they often used them instead of water when cooking soups to give them a pleasant islandy taste. In winter, for their cabbage soup, borscht and other soups, the Romans often took sauerkraut, which they prepared in large quantities. Sometimes soups were seasoned to taste and availability with fresh milk, sour milk, cream and sour cream (sour cream). Moreover, in cities, fresh milk was used relatively rarely; it quickly turned sour in the warm Mediterranean climate. City residents widely used different types of sour milk, cottage cheese and cheese of many varieties.

Beetroot is a great achievement of the ancient Greek vegetable garden, produced by the Greeks long before they colonized the Northern Black Sea region. The ancient Greeks gave beets the name of the second letter of their alphabet - “beta” in Greek means “beet”. People have known beets since ancient times. In the 3rd century BC, the ancient Greek botanist Theophrastus described beets that grew wild on the Mediterranean coast. The first plant that people began to grow was Swiss chard. The ancient Greeks grew beets mainly as a medicinal plant; the ancient Romans included them in their regular diet, and they enjoyed eating not only root vegetables, but also beet leaves, including sometimes wrapping cabbage rolls in them. But more often cabbage and grape leaves were used for cabbage rolls.

Cabbage is native to warm areas of the Mediterranean. It was there that the seven classic species that exist today were formed from a wild relative. In the 1st century AD, according to the scientist and writer Pliny the Elder, about eight varieties of cabbage were already used, including leafy cabbage, cabbage and broccoli. The ancient Greeks used cabbage not only to prepare borscht and other dishes, but also to make cabbage rolls, and in the form in which they are known to us to this day. For the winter, the Romans salted and fermented cabbage in large clay barrels. They ate sauerkraut with olive oil, used it in various dishes, and prepared meat and fish cabbage soup from it. Later, beets and cabbage on Greek triremes reached the distant shores of the Pontus Euxine - that is, to the Greek colonies in the Northern Black Sea region. Here, as in Ancient Greece, they were kind garden neighbors. The product of local Greek gardens was to the taste of the Scythians and Sarmatians, Goths and Slavs. It was the ancient Romans who made the main contribution to the improvement of cabbage as a vegetable crop.

Numerous excavations at the site of imperial garrisons in Chersonesus, Evpatoria, Feodosia and Kerch indicate that the ancient Romans knew a lot about soldiers' grub. Each tent for eight to ten legionnaires (contubernium - co-soldiers), having received food from the warehouse, independently prepared vegetable, meat and fish soup and borscht. Among the Roman legionnaires there were especially many Thracians - big fans of vegetable stew, which almost exactly repeats the recipe for modern classic borscht. At the excavation site they find characteristic kitchen and dining utensils, not only ceramic, but also metal, used by the legionnaires of Rome, on which they cooked their eggs.

To prepare many dishes, peas were grown, which were used as pies filling. Peas cannot be found in the wild now; this plant has been cultivated since the Stone Age along with wheat, barley and millet. Beans, a relative of peas, appeared in Europe along with tomatoes, corn, potatoes, pumpkins and cocoa only after Columbus's voyage; beans were one of the main plants of ancient agriculture in Peru, Mexico and other countries of South America. Regarding pumpkin, the Romans may have consumed African pumpkin. Carrots were familiar to people 2 thousand years BC. In the wild, it is found in America, Australia, New Zealand, Central Asia and the Caucasus. The Romans also consumed carrots as a sweet treat for dessert, seasoning them with honey and sprinkling them with crushed nuts and raisins. In addition to honey, the Romans used large quantities of sweet grape juice boiled in metal vats until honey thick as a sweetness. The turnip has a very ancient history as a cultivated vegetable; its homeland is the Mediterranean. In Ancient Greece, turnips were used as food, livestock feed, and as a medicinal plant. Among the ancient Romans, baked turnips were a favorite delicacy and an addition to many dishes. Herodotus also mentioned radishes: he reported that the builders of the pyramids of Cheops (2900 BC) added radishes, onions and garlic to their food. It was introduced into culture at least 5 thousand years ago. The Romans have been growing radishes in their gardens since ancient times. Celery grew in Roman gardens, although the Romans often used wild varieties of it in their diet. And now celery can be found wild throughout Europe, Western Asia, North and South America.

The ancient Romans knew how to cook deep-fried foods. This is how the then very popular “globules” were prepared - dough balls fried in olive oil or melted lard, brushed with honey and sprinkled with poppy seeds, as well as many other dough or seafood products. From Ancient Rome, salads also came to international cuisine, where salad initially meant a single dish consisting of chopped endive, parsley and onions, seasoned with honey, salt, vinegar, sometimes with the addition of olive oil, and after the 1st century AD. and with the addition of ground black pepper.

Products made from chopped minced meat (sometimes with the addition of onion, garlic, parsley and dill to the minced meat) were widely used, from which flat round (about 8-10 cm in diameter and 2-3 cm thick) similar to modern chopped beefsteaks were fried on grates. Such “cutlets” were the ancient Roman version of modern fast food - they were usually fried right on the street and immediately sold, laid out hot on a piece of bread. This quick meal was accompanied by a glass of wine diluted with hot or cold water (depending on the weather). Wine in Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome was widely used instead of modern tea leaves and in approximately the same quantities in relation to water. From Ancient Greece, many recipes for sausages prepared in natural animal casings were borrowed and creatively enriched - immediately consumed boiled and boiled-smoked, as well as long-term cold smoked sausages with drying to ensure their long-term preservation. The latter was of particular importance in supplying remote Roman garrisons with shelf-stable meat products. Particularly common was the simple type of botulus - blood sausage, which was sold on the street. The most popular was Lucanian sausage - smoked pork sausage, richly seasoned with spices. The Romans were great craftsmen in preparing various types of lard, as well as well-preserved hams and smoked meats, which were necessarily included in the diet of legionnaires. Ancient Roman legionnaires cooked their cabbage soup and borscht with this pork, which made it possible to avoid poisoning even if these products were slightly damaged. To this day, Italians are unsurpassed experts in preparing many different types of lard and pork products. The rich Romans preferred suckling pig, lamb, goat, game, sea fish, and oysters as meats. But the poor strata and the army mainly ate buffalo meat, so it was by the 1st century. BC dates back to massive breeding of this animal. The Romans were the first to understand that good nutrition and care are directly related to the weight of the animal. The buffaloes of the Roman era were unusually large, and their numbers became so significant that this species became the main export item in the province. Accounts from the British Vindolanda camp say that the legionnaires ate a lot of ham. One beauty in the absence of refrigeration equipment is that you always eat fresh, only slaughtered meat (otherwise it will spoil).

The fish was boiled in salt water, grilled, stewed, cooked over coals, baked and fricassee. Apicius recommended a sauce made from pepper, lovage, egg yolk, vinegar, garum, olive oil, wine, and honey for oysters. Oysters, according to Apicius, were suitable for preparing a casserole of boiled chicken, Lucanian sausage, sea urchins, eggs, chicken liver, cod fillet and cheese, as well as vegetables and seasonings. The Romans prepared various spicy fish sauces: garum from mackerel, muria from tumac, alex from the remains of mackerel and tumac, or from ordinary fish.

The ancient peoples loved dairy dishes and cheeses. It is curious that drinking whole milk was considered an excess, harmful to the health of adults, and it was always diluted with water. This was one of the common drinks, along with barley water (like modern kvass) and diluted wine. The Romans intensively developed viticulture, and usually drank wine diluted with cold or hot water - this drink served them hot instead of our tea, which they did not know. The Romans considered beer to be the drink of despicable barbarians; they heated wine in the winter in the likeness of a samovar, and made analogues of mulled wine.

The famous hot sauce garum (in some ancient Roman provinces it was called garon), widely produced in the Roman Empire, was especially popular - it was prepared from fish, which was poured with brine and left in it for 2-3 months. Garum was applied to both savory and sweet dishes, and was very popular in the Roman cuisine of ordinary citizens and nobles, in the Roman cookbook of Apicius of the 1st century AD. e. garum was included in most recipes (Apicius uses the second name for the sauce - liquamen, which means “liquid”). This sauce was prepared by fermenting salted fish: anchovy (anchovy), tuna, mackerel, sometimes shellfish in combination with aromatic herbs, fermentation was carried out in large stone baths under the influence of the sun. Vinegar, salt and olive oil, pepper or wine were also added to the sauce. Garum was also considered a medicine and was used for dog bites, abscesses, and diarrhea. The preparation of the sauce was prohibited in cities due to the spread of a disgusting smell. Throughout the empire, the sauce was sent in small amphorae and in some regions completely replaced salt, since it was very salty. In the Roman era, sour meant primarily vinegar, sweet meant honey. Many of Apicius’ recipes involve the simultaneous use of both of these products.

Among the spices, Roman cuisine used “laser”, a resin with a garlicky taste and pungent odor, which was extracted from the root of ferula, and later (this plant disappeared for reasons unknown to us already in the 1st century AD) - from the plant “asa foetida”, which is still used today in the East, as well as spikenard, tanning sumac, saussurea and myrtle berries. In the 1st century, pepper rapidly spread, although Pliny in Natural History was still amazed at the success of this seasoning. In the book of Apicius, pepper is included in almost all recipes, including sweets and even wine. Other spices are used almost exclusively for medicinal purposes and in the making of perfumes. Between the 5th and 6th centuries, new spices appeared, including ginger and saffron, the latter for the specific purpose of coloring, which would later become a typical feature of medieval cuisine, "propter colore". In one of the medieval manuscripts that preserved the text of the cookbook of Apicius, cloves are also mentioned in the lists of products attached to it.

Some cities and provinces were famous for their products: for example, first-class olive oil was produced in Venafro and Casina, there was a large production of garum in Pompeii, and the best varieties of table olives were supplied to Rome from Picenum. In the valley of the Po River and Gaul, excellent smoked lard, pork and ham were produced, oysters were imported from Brundisium, leeks from Tarentum, Ariccia and Ostia, Ravenna was famous for asparagus, Pompeii for cabbage, Lucania for sausage. Dairy products, piglets and lambs, poultry and eggs came to Rome from the surrounding suburban estates, and cheeses came from the Vestina region in Central Italy, from Umbria and Etruria. The forests near Lake Tsiminsky and near Lavrent supplied game in abundance.

Traditionally, the Romans ate pears, cherries, plums, pomegranates, quinces, figs, grapes and apples (there were up to 32 types of cultivated apple trees). In the 1st century BC. e. Oriental fruits appeared in the gardens of Italy: cherries, peaches and apricots. Fruits were consumed fresh, preserved in honey or grape juice, dried, and also as part of main courses and snacks; for example, Apicius describes recipes for peach and pear casseroles. For a long time, in the city, the poor had the opportunity to grow vegetables in their garden beds: women grew “penny vegetables,” Pliny the Elder called the garden “the poor man’s market.” Later, with the rapid growth of the urban population, the poor were forced to buy vegetables.

Diocletian's edict on maximum prices (beginning of the 4th century AD) established fixed prices for food and prices for the work of artisans and other professions (for example, a baker received 50 denarii a day, a canal cleaner - 25, a fresco artist - 150) . Prices for some food products by category:

Poultry, price in denarii per piece: fat pheasant - 250, fat goose - 200, peacock - 300 per male, 200 per female, pair of chickens - 60, duck - 20.
Seafood, price in denarii per libra (327.45 g): sardines - 16, marinated fish - eight, but one oyster for one denarii.
Meat, price in denarii per libra (327.45 g): Gallic ham - 20, Lucanian sausage - 16, pork - 12, pig's uterus - 24, beef - eight.
Vegetables, price in denarii per piece: carrots - 0.24; cucumber - 0.4; pumpkin - 0.4; cabbage - 0.8; artichoke - 2.
Fruits, price in denarii per piece: apple - 0.4; peach - 0.4; fig - 0.16; lemon - 25.
Liquid products, price in denarii per sextarium (0.547 l): olive oil - 40, garum - 16, honey - 40, wine vinegar - 6.

Breakfast was the lightest meal of the day for the Romans and depended on the type of work, daily routine and social status. Usually breakfast took place between 8-9 a.m., initially the Romans ate bread-like flatbreads with salt, eggs, cheese, honey, and sometimes olives, dates, vegetables for breakfast, and in rich houses also meat and fish. Drinks for breakfast included water, rarely milk and wine. Lunch among the Romans was a light lunch or snack at 12-13 o'clock: mostly cold snacks were served for lunch, such as ham, bread, olives, cheese, mushrooms, vegetables and fruits (dates), and nuts. Lunch was more varied than breakfast, but still was not particularly important, so some Romans had a snack while standing, sometimes food left over from the previous day's dinner was heated up as lunch. Wine with honey was served as a drink. After lunch in the hot summer, at least for members of the upper class and soldiers, a siesta (meridiatio) began, lasting 1-2 hours, schools and shops also closed at lunchtime. In the upper classes, whose representatives did not work physically, it was customary to settle matters before lunch. After lunch, the last things to do in the city were completed, then they went to the baths, and between 14-16 hours dinner began. Sometimes dinner lasted until late at night and ended with drinking. During the times of the tsars and the early republic, in all classes, dinner was very simple: it consisted of porridge made from grain - pulse. The richer segments of the population ate porridge with eggs, cheese and honey. Occasionally meat or fish was served with the pulse. Later, nothing changed for the majority of the population; meat was served only on holidays. Many ate in cheap eateries or bought food on the street, as they were unable to cook in their narrow apartments.

Initially, the ancient Romans ate in the atrium, sitting by the fireplace, only the father had the right to recline, the mother sat at the foot of his bed, and the children were seated on benches, sometimes at a special table on which they were served small portions. The slaves were in the same room on wooden benches or ate around the hearth. Later, they began to set up special halls - tricliniums - for dinner parties, in which wives and children began to take part; they were also allowed to eat while lying down. Initially, this word denoted three-seater dining couches (kliniyas) arranged in the letter P, then the name was assigned to the dining room itself. Rich houses had several dining rooms for different seasons. The winter triclinium was often placed on the lower floor, in the summer the dining room was moved to the upper floor, or the dining bed was placed in a gazebo, under a canopy of greenery, in the courtyard or garden. The Romans adopted the custom of eating while lying down from the Greeks (around the 2nd century BC after the campaigns to the East). With this tradition, furniture also came to Ancient Rome: clinia and triclinium - three clinia surrounding a small table for dishes and drinks on three sides. Each of the boxes in the triclinium had its own designation: lectus medius in the middle, lectus summus to the right of the central cline and lectus imus to the left. The owner of the house and his family were located on the lower (left) wedge, the other two were intended for guests, and the most important guests were placed on the middle bed. The most honorable place on each box was the left one, with the exception of the middle box, where the right one, which was located next to the owner’s place, was considered the place of honor. Each clinic was designed for a maximum of three people. Towards the end of the republic, round and oval tables began to come into use. Around such a table they began to arrange one bed in the form of a semicircle - a sigma (a bed for 5-8 people, curved in the shape of the Greek letter sigma) or a stibadium (a semicircular bed that could accommodate only six or seven people). The places on the bed were not separated by pillows; around the entire sigma there was one pillow in the form of a cushion, on which all those reclining rested. The bed itself was still covered with carpets. At sigma, the places of honor were the extreme ones; the first place was on the right edge, the second on the left; the remaining places were counted from left to right.

In most ancient Roman households, dishes were made of cheap wood or clay; in wealthy ones, dishes were made of thin glass, tin, bronze, silver, gold, and lead. The spoons were like soup and dessert spoons for eggs and snails, but they ate more with their hands, so they washed them before and during meals, even before eating they could change clothes and wash their feet. For drinks they used: cantharus - a cup with two handles on a leg, cymbium - a bowl without handles in the shape of a boat, patĕra - a flat bowl, used primarily in religious rites; calix - cup with handles; scyphus - cup without handles; phiăla - a bowl with a wide bottom; scaphium - a boat-shaped bowl. There was tooth powder in use. Bones, lettuce leaves, nut shells, grape seeds, etc. were thrown onto the floor, then the slaves swept up the so-called “collected”, they loved to make mosaics on the floor in the form of leftovers, so that drunk people would kick them and amuse the feasting people.

Fast food establishments in Ancient Rome were visited by ordinary people from the lower classes (slaves, freedmen, sailors, porters, artisans, day laborers, and, according to Juvenal, also bandits, thieves, runaway slaves, executioners and undertakers, who did not have the opportunity to cook in their cramped homes, as well as working people and travelers. Only occasionally did aristocrats appear in such establishments, and those who were recognized could lose the respect of society, a fact that could be exploited by political opponents. Snack bars and bars served not only for eating, but also for socializing and entertainment, dice games, performances by dancers or singers were practiced.Bars and eateries filled up rather in the evening and were open until nightfall, many were open during the day, especially those located near the thermal baths (in the imperial period - also in the thermal baths) or other places of mass entertainment .In taverns they served inexpensive Italian wine, in Gaul also beer, olives or other snacks; they ate standing or sitting at a table. In popinas they served peas, beans, onions, cucumbers, eggs, cheese, fruit depending on the season, several meat dishes for wealthier clients, pies and pastries. In Pompeii, many thermopolia and popinas were excavated - eateries with counters facing the street: in the room there were deep vessels in which there were cauldrons with food; prostitutes often offered their services in popinas.

In the 1st century BC. e. The first three specialized culinary works of Guy Matia appear on cooking, fish and preparations. The only surviving Roman cookbook by the gourmet Apicius appears in the 1st century. The works of Plutarch are one of the important sources of information about ancient life and traditions. In the Ethics, Plutarch describes, among other things, the triclinia, behavior at the table, as well as topics for conversation and entertainment. In the 5th century, in the Saturnalia, Macrobius discusses in detail the names of numerous nuts and fruits known at that time, and recounts historical feasts. In the 7th century, Isidore of Seville, in the 10th book of his Etymology, describes the food of the Romans.