Know what empirical evidence is. Empirical study of the nature of the relationship between indicators of subjectivity and professional identity

empirical research directed directly at the object and is based on observational and experimental data. At this level, sensory cognition as a living contemplation predominates. Here there is a rational moment and its forms (concepts, judgments, etc.), but they have a subordinate position. Therefore, at the empirical level, the object under study is reflected mainly from the side of its external connections and manifestations accessible to living contemplation. In addition to observation and experiment, empirical research uses such means as description, comparison, measurement, analysis, and induction. Fact is the most important element of empirical research and a form of scientific knowledge.

Fact(from lat. factum - done, accomplished): a) a synonym for the concept of "truth", a real event, a result - as opposed to a fictional one; b) a special kind of sentences fixing empirical knowledge, i.e. obtained in the course of observations and experiments. A fact becomes scientific when it is included in the logical structure of a particular system of scientific knowledge. As N. Bohr noted, not a single experimental fact can be formulated apart from a certain system of concepts. In the modern methodology of science, there are two polar points of view in understanding the nature of a fact - factualism, which emphasizes the autonomy and independence of facts in relation to various theories, and theorism, on the contrary, stating that facts are completely dependent on theory and when theories change, the entire factual basis changes. science. The correct solution of the problem consists in recognizing that a scientific fact, having a theoretical load, is relatively independent of theory, since it is basically conditioned by material reality.

In scientific knowledge, the totality of facts forms the empirical basis for hypotheses and theories. The task of a scientific theory is to describe the facts, explain them, and also predict the previously unknown. Facts play a big role in testing, confirming and refuting theories: compliance with facts is one of the essential requirements for scientific theories. The discrepancy between theory and fact is regarded as a significant shortcoming of the theoretical system of knowledge. At the same time, if a theory contradicts one or several individual facts, there is no reason to consider it refuted, since such a contradiction can be eliminated in the course of developing the theory or improving experimental techniques.

Theoretical study connected with the improvement and development of the conceptual apparatus of science and is aimed at a comprehensive knowledge of reality in its essential connections and patterns. This level scientific knowledge characterized by the predominance of rational forms of knowledge - concepts, theories, laws and other forms of thinking. Sensual cognition as living contemplation is not eliminated here, but becomes a subordinate (but very important) aspect of the cognitive process. Theoretical knowledge reflects phenomena and processes in terms of their universal internal connections and patterns, comprehended with the help of rational processing of empirical research data.

Considering theoretical research as the highest and most developed form of scientific knowledge, we can single out the following structural components - a problem, a hypothesis, a theory.

Problem is a form of theoretical knowledge, the content of which is something that is not yet known by man. Since the problem is a question that arises in the course of the cognitive process, it is not a frozen form of scientific knowledge, but a process that includes two main points - formulation and solution. The entire course of the development of human knowledge can be represented as a transition from the formulation of some problems to their solution, and then to the formulation of new problems.

Hypothesis- a form of theoretical knowledge, a structural element of a scientific theory, containing an assumption formulated on the basis of facts, the true meaning of which is uncertain and needs to be proven. A scientific hypothesis is always put forward to solve a specific problem in order to explain new experimental data or eliminate the contradictions of the theory and the negative results of experiments. The role of hypotheses in scientific knowledge was noted by many prominent philosophers and scientists. A prominent British philosopher, logician and mathematician A. Whitehead emphasized that systematic thinking cannot progress without using some general working hypotheses with a special scope of application: “Sufficiently developed science progresses in two respects. On the one hand, knowledge develops within the framework of the method, prescribed by the dominant working hypothesis; on the other hand, the working hypotheses themselves are corrected. As a form of theoretical knowledge, the put forward hypothesis must meet the mandatory conditions that are necessary for its occurrence and justification: comply with the laws established in science; be consistent with the factual material on the basis of which and for the explanation of which it is put forward; not contain contradictions that are prohibited by the laws of formal logic; be simple and allow the possibility of its confirmation or refutation.

Theory is the most developed and complex form of scientific knowledge. Other forms of scientific knowledge - the laws of science, classifications, typologies, primary explanatory schemes - can genetically precede the actual theory, forming the basis for its formation. At the same time, they often coexist with the theory, interacting with it in the system of science, and even enter the theory as its elements.

The specificity of the theory in comparison with other forms of scientific knowledge lies in the fact that it gives a holistic view of the patterns and essential connections of a certain area of ​​reality - the object of this theory. Examples scientific theories are Newton's classical mechanics, Darwin's evolutionary theory, Einstein's theory of relativity. Any scientific theory, according to Einstein, must meet the following criteria: not contradict the data of experience; be verifiable on the available experimental material; differ in naturalness, logical simplicity; contain the most specific provisions; be distinguished by grace and beauty, harmony; have a wide scope; indicate the way to create a new, more general theory, within which it itself remains a limiting case.

In its structure, the theory is an internally differentiated, but integral system of knowledge, which is characterized by the logical dependence of some elements on others, the derivation of the content of the theory from a certain set of statements and concepts - the initial basis of the theory - according to certain logical and methodological rules.

Theoretical and empirical levels scientific knowledge, for all its differences, are closely related to each other. Empirical research, revealing new data of observation and experiment, stimulates the development of theoretical research, sets new tasks for it. Theoretical research, developing and concretizing the theoretical content of science, opens up new perspectives for explaining and foreseeing facts, orients and directs empirical research. Science as an integral dynamic system of knowledge can develop successfully only by enriching itself with new empirical data, generalizing them in a system of theoretical means, forms and methods of cognition. At certain points in the development of science, the empirical turns into the theoretical, and vice versa. It is unacceptable to absolutize one of these levels to the detriment of the other.

9. The essence and content of the stages of scientific research

Any particular study can be presented as a series of steps.

1. Choice of research topic.

2. Definition of the object and subject of research.

3. Definition of goals and objectives.

4. Formulation of the title of the work.

5. Development of a hypothesis.

6. Drawing up a research plan.

7. Work with literature.

8. Selection of subjects.

9. Choice of research methods.

10. Organization of research conditions.

11. Research (collection of material).

12. Processing of research results.

13. Formulation of conclusions.

14. Registration of work.

Each stage has its own tasks, which are often solved sequentially, and sometimes simultaneously.

Choice of research topic. Scientific research always involves the solution of some scientific problem. Lack of knowledge, facts, inconsistency of scientific ideas create grounds for scientific research. The formulation of a scientific problem involves:

Detecting the existence of such a deficit;

Awareness of the need to eliminate the deficit;

Formulation of the problem.

The topic should be relevant, i.e. useful to meet the scientific, social, technical and economic needs of society.

Definition of the object and subject of research. Object of study- this is a process or phenomenon that is chosen for study, contains a problem situation and serves as a source of information necessary for the researcher.

The object of scientific and pedagogical research can be processes (educational, educational, organizational, training, managerial) that develop in a kindergarten, school, youth sports school, university, sports and recreation complex, etc. However, it is recommended that the object of study be formulated not indefinitely broadly, but in such a way that it is possible to trace the circle of objective reality. This circle should include the object as the most important element, which is characterized in direct relationship with other components of the given object and can be unambiguously understood only when compared with other aspects of the object.

Subject of study is more specific and includes only those connections and relationships that are subject to direct study in this work.

The subject of pedagogical research can be: improvement and development of the educational process; forms and methods pedagogical activity; diagnostics of the educational process; ways, conditions, factors for improving education, upbringing, training; the nature of psychological and pedagogical requirements and interactions between teachers and students, coaches and athletes, pedagogical relationships.

From what has been said, it follows that the object is that which is being investigated, and the subject is that which receives a scientific explanation in this object. It is the subject of research that determines the topic of research. For example: The object of research is the system of physical education of students, the subject of research is the process of forming the motivational-value attitude of students to physical culture, the topic of the study is the formation of the motivational-value attitude of students to physical culture.

Definition of purpose and objectives. Based on the object and subject, you can begin to determine the purpose and objectives of the study. Target is formulated briefly and extremely precisely, in a semantic sense expressing the main thing that the researcher intends to do, what end result he is striving for. The purpose of research within the framework of term papers and theses can be the development of methods and means of training, training, education of personality abilities, development of motor abilities, forms and methods of physical education in various structural divisions ( Kindergarten, school, youth sports school, etc.) and age groups, the content of training, ways and means of improving the management of the training and educational process, etc.

The goal is specified and developed in tasks research.

Several tasks are set, and each of them, with a clear formulation, reveals the side of the topic that is being studied. When defining tasks, it is necessary to take into account their interconnection. Sometimes it is impossible to solve one problem without first solving another. Each task must have a solution reflected in one or more conclusions.

As a rule, each task is formulated in the form of an assignment: “Study...”, “Develop...”, “Reveal...”, “Establish...”, “Justify...”, “Define... ”, “Check…”, “Prove…”, etc.

Formulation of the title of the work. Having defined the topic and specific tasks, specifying the object and subject of research, it is possible to give the first version of the wording of the title of the work.

The title of the work is recommended to be formulated as briefly as possible, exactly in accordance with its content. It must be remembered that the subject of research should be reflected in the title. Vague wordings should not be allowed in the title of the work, for example: "Analysis of some questions ...", as well as stamped wordings such as: "To the question of ...", "To the study of ...", "Materials to ..." .

Finding a complete and concise wording right away is not an easy task. Even in the course of research, new, better names may emerge.

Hypothesis development. Hypothesis- a scientific assumption that requires experimental verification and theoretical justification, confirmation. Knowledge of the subject of research allows us to put forward a hypothesis. All hypotheses, including pedagogical ones, are divided into descriptive and explanatory ones. The first describes the relationship between the pedagogical means of forming a particular quality and the result of experimental activity, the second - explanatory - reveals the internal conditions, mechanisms, causes and effects.

The sources for the development of a hypothesis can be the generalization of pedagogical experience, the analysis of existing scientific facts and the further development of scientific theories. Any hypothesis is considered as an initial canvas and a starting point for research, which may or may not be confirmed.

Drawing up a research plan. Study plan is a planned action program that includes all stages of work with the definition of calendar deadlines for their implementation. The plan is necessary in order to properly organize the work and give it a more purposeful character. In addition, he disciplines, makes you work in a certain rhythm.

In the course of work, the initial plan can be detailed, supplemented and even changed.

Literature work. A place this stage work is determined conditionally, since the actual work with the literature begins in the process of choosing a topic and continues until the end of the study. The effectiveness of working with literary sources depends on the knowledge of certain rules for their search, the appropriate methodology for studying and taking notes. A "literary source" is a document containing any information (monograph, article, theses, book, etc.).

Selection of subjects. Any pedagogical research is ultimately comparative. You can compare the results of the experimental group (that is, the group in which a new element of the educational process was used) with the results of the control group (in which the usually accepted formulation of training and education was kept for comparison).

You can also compare the results of "today's" studies with the results that were obtained on the same people, but earlier. True, in this case, factual material on the effectiveness of previous pedagogical activity will be required, which would allow statistical calculations to be made on the reliability of differences. In addition, it will be necessary to prove that the results of research, for example, in the current academic year are the result of a new pedagogical element, and not an increased level of physical fitness compared to the previous year.

Finally, you can compare the results obtained on this group of people with the standards that exist in science (for example, compare the level of physical development of 10-year-old children of “their” school with the standards characterizing the physical development of children of this age in certain geographical and climatic zones country).

The need to use certain methods of comparing the results of the pedagogical process dictates special requirements for the selection of subjects: the subjects under study must be as identical as possible in their characteristics. Only in this case it will be possible to assert that the effectiveness of the pedagogical process has been achieved due to a new educational element, and not due, for example, to a better physical development of the experimental group under study.

It is known that any pedagogical research is carried out on a relatively small number of people. At the same time, conclusions are drawn in relation to all persons similar in sex, age, level of preparedness, etc. Such a transfer of experimental results is based on the statistical law of large numbers. The objective effect of this law makes it possible to use the sampling method in statistics, in which not all units of a particular population are studied, but only a selected part of them. In this case, the generalized characteristics of the selected part (sample population) apply to the entire population (general population). The main requirement for the sample is that it should reflect the features of the general population as much as possible (ie, be representative - representative).

Using the sampling method, each experimenter decides two tasks: who to choose as research and how many to choose.

Choice of research methods. Research method is a way of obtaining the collection, processing or analysis of data. In research conducted in the field of physical culture and sports, various methods of scientific knowledge from other areas of science and technology are widely used. On the one hand, this phenomenon can be considered positive, since it makes it possible to study the issues under study in a comprehensive manner, to consider the diversity of connections and relationships, on the other hand, this diversity makes it difficult to choose methods appropriate for a particular study.

The main guideline for choosing research methods can be its tasks. It is the tasks set before the work that determine the ways to solve them, and therefore the choice of appropriate research methods. At the same time, it is important to select methods that would be adequate to the uniqueness of the phenomena being studied.

In the practice of conducting research aimed at solving problems of the theory of physical culture, the following methods are most widely used:

analysis of scientific and methodological literature, documentary and archival materials;

survey (conversation, interview and questioning);

control tests (testing);

timing;

expert evaluation;

pedagogical supervision;

pedagogical experiment;

methods of mathematical processing.

These groups of methods are closely related. They cannot be used in isolation. For example, to conduct an observation or experiment, it is necessary to first obtain information about what is already in the practice and theory of physical culture, i.e., use the methods of analyzing scientific and methodological literature or a survey. The factual material obtained during the research will not be reliable without the methods of mathematical processing.

The essence of the pedagogical experiment and pedagogical observation is the combination of several of the listed methods. Any pedagogical experiment includes: one or more methods for collecting current information (control tests, survey, expert assessment, etc.); method of mathematical processing. They are preceded by the use of methods for obtaining retrospective information (survey, analysis of literary and documentary sources). All this serves as a basis for considering the experiment as a complex method of scientific knowledge.

Pedagogical observation necessarily includes one or more methods of collecting current information and sometimes a method of mathematical processing.

Thus, pedagogical experiment and observation are certain systems of using several research methods. In both cases, the same methods of collecting current information can be used.

The use of basic pedagogical methods in research in the field of physical culture and sports allows using in each specific case a wide variety of techniques, methods and methods for registering and collecting information (physiological, psychological, biomechanical, medical, etc.): from conventional visual analysis and evaluation to application modern technical devices and devices using modern computers and information technologies.

Organization of research conditions. The organization of a pedagogical experiment is connected with the planning of its implementation, which determines the sequence of all stages of work, as well as with the preparation of all conditions that ensure a full-fledged study. This includes the preparation of the appropriate environment, instruments, facilities, instruction of assistants, planning of observations, selection of experimental and control groups, evaluation of all features of the experimental base, etc.

Certain conditions are necessary for the successful conduct of a pedagogical experiment: the presence of a sports base (gym, swimming pool, stadium), appropriate equipment (gymnastic equipment, balls, skis, skates, etc.). The question of the place of the experiment in practice, especially at the initial stage, is most often decided on the basis of a personal agreement between the experimenter and teachers or trainers of the relevant organizations (Youth Sports School, secondary school, vocational school, university, etc.), in which a pedagogical experiment can be staged. In all cases, the permission of the head of the organization in which the experiment is supposed to be carried out must be obtained for the experiment.

Conducting research. At this stage of the work, using the selected research methods, the necessary empirical data are collected to test the hypothesis put forward.

Due to the fact that the pedagogical experiment includes both conducting training sessions and recording their effectiveness, it is always built according to the following scheme: initial research - conducting classes - intermediate research - conducting classes - final research.

Initial, intermediate and final studies provide for obtaining indicators using methods for collecting current information, and conducting classes ensures the direct implementation of the planned educational process (the use of new tools, methods, etc.).

The time intervals between the initial, intermediate and final studies are extremely variable and depend on many reasons (tasks and research methods, real conditions organization of the experiment, etc.).

The study is carried out on the basis of the general program of the experiment, the programs of conducting classes in the experimental and control groups, as well as the program of conducting observations.

The program indicates the content and sequence of all actions (what, where, when and how will be carried out, observed, verified, compared and measured; what will be the procedure for measuring indicators, their registration; what equipment, tools and other means will be used; who will do the job and what).

Processing of research results. Primary data processing. It is important to process the results of each study as soon as possible after its completion, while the experimenter's memory can suggest those details that for some reason are not fixed, but are of interest for understanding the essence of the matter. When processing the data collected, it may turn out that they are either not enough, or they are contradictory and therefore do not give grounds for final conclusions. In this case, the study must be continued, making the required additions to it.

In most cases, it is advisable to start processing with the compilation of tables (pivot tables) of the received data.

For both manual and computer processing, initial data is most often entered into the original pivot table. Recently, computer processing has become the predominant form of mathematical and statistical processing, so it is advisable to enter all the features you are interested in in the table in the form of a decimal number, i.e. first convert minutes to decimal fractions of an hour, seconds to decimal fractions of a minute, number of months to decimal fractions of a year, and so on. This is necessary because the data format for most used computer programs imposes its own limitations.

Mathematical data processing. To determine the methods of mathematical and statistical processing, first of all, it is necessary to evaluate the nature of the distribution for all the parameters used. For parameters that have a normal distribution or close to normal, you can use parametric statistics methods, which in many cases are more powerful than non-parametric statistics methods. The advantage of the latter is that they allow testing statistical hypotheses regardless of the form of distribution.

The most important statistical characteristics are:

a) arithmetic mean

b) standard deviation

c) coefficient of variation

Based on these features normal distribution, we can estimate the degree of closeness of the considered distribution to it.

One of the most common tasks in data processing is to evaluate the validity of differences between two or more series of values. In mathematical statistics, there are a number of ways to solve it. The computer variant of data processing has now become the most common. Many statistical applications have procedures for estimating differences between parameters of the same sample or different samples. With a fully computerized processing of the material, it is not difficult to use the appropriate procedure at the right time and evaluate the differences of interest.

Formulation of conclusions. Conclusions are statements that briefly express the meaningful results of the study, they reflect in the thesis form what is new that the author himself has obtained. A common mistake is that the author includes in the conclusions generally accepted in science provisions that no longer need proof.

The solution of each of the tasks listed in the introduction should be reflected in the conclusions in a certain way.

Registration of work. The main task of this stage of work is to present the results obtained in a publicly accessible and understandable form, allowing them to be compared with the results of other researchers and used in practice. Therefore, the design of the work must comply with the requirements for works sent to print.

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Books

• , Yakovlev Andrey Alexandrovich, Demidova Olga Anatolyevna, Podkolzina Elena Anatolyevna, Balaeva Olga Nikolaevna. The monograph is devoted to the analysis of the development of the Russian public procurement system during the period of the Law on Public Procurement No. 94-FZ, which became the basis for a radical reform of…
• An empirical analysis of the public procurement system in Russia, Andrey Yakovlev, Olga Anatolyevna Demidova, Elena Anatolyevna Podkolzina, Olga Nikolaevna Balaeva. The monograph is devoted to the analysis of the development of the Russian public procurement system during the period of the Law on Public Procurement 94-FZ, which became the basis for a radical reform of the…

The empirical method is based on sensory perception and measurements with complex instruments. Empirical methods are an important part scientific research, along with the theoretical one. Without these techniques, not a single science, be it chemistry, physics, mathematics, biology, could develop.

What does empirical method mean?

Empirical or sensual method is scientific knowledge surrounding reality empirically, involving interaction with the subject under study with the help of experiments and observations. Empirical research methods help to reveal the objective laws by which the development of certain phenomena takes place. These are complex and complex steps, and as a result of them new scientific discoveries occur.

Types of Empirical Methods

Empirical knowledge of any science, subject is based on standard methods that have proven themselves over time, the same for all disciplines, but in each specific area with its own specifics characteristic of science. Empirical methods, types:

• observation:
• experiment;
• measurement;
• conversation;
• questioning;
• survey;
• conversation.

Empirical methods - advantages and disadvantages

Methods of empirical knowledge, unlike theoretical ones, have a minimal possibility of errors, shortcomings, provided that the experiment was repeated many times and gave similar results. Any empirical method involves the human senses, which are a reliable tool for understanding the world around us - and this is the main advantage of this method.

Empirical level methods

Empirical methods of scientific knowledge are no less important for science than theoretical premises. Patterns are built empirically, hypotheses are confirmed or denied, therefore, the empirical method as a set of methods based on sensory perception and data obtained measuring instruments helps to push the horizons of science and get new results.

Empirical research methods in pedagogy

Empirical methods of pedagogical research are based on the same basic components:

• pedagogical observation - a specific task is taken, a condition in which it is necessary to observe the students and register the results of the observation;
• surveys (questionnaires, conversations, interviews) - help to obtain information on a specific topic, personality traits students;
• the study of students' works (graphic, written in various disciplines, creative) - provide information about the student's individuality, his inclination to a particular subject, success in mastering knowledge;
• the study of school documentation (diaries, class journals, personal files) - allows you to assess the success of the pedagogical process as a whole.

Empirical Methods in Psychology

Psychological science developed from philosophy, and the most basic tools for cognizing someone else's psychic reality were adopted methods with which you can visually see the manifestations of the psyche outside - these are experiments. Physiological psychology, thanks to which psychology as a whole advanced as a science, was founded by the psychologist, physiologist W. Wundt. His laboratory of experimental psychology was opened in 1832. The empirical methods of research in psychology used by Wundt are applied in classical experimental psychology:

1. Observation Method. The study of behavioral reactions and actions of a person in natural conditions and in experimental conditions with given variables. Two types of observation: introspection (self-observation, looking inside) - a necessary element of self-knowledge and tracking changes in oneself, and objective observation - an observer (psychologist) monitors and registers reactions, emotions, actions of an observed person or group of people.
2. Experiment Method. In the laboratory (laboratory experiment) - special conditions are created that are necessary to confirm a psychological hypothesis or reject it. With the help of special equipment, sensors, various physiological parameters are recorded (pulse, respiration, brain activity, pupil reactions, changes in behavior). A natural (natural experiment) is carried out in conditions familiar to a person with the creation of the desired situation.
3. Survey The provision of information by a person by answering a series of questions.
4. Conversation- an empirical method based on verbal communication, during which the psychologist notes the psychological characteristics of the individual.
5. Tests- specially developed techniques, including a number of questions, unfinished sentences, work with images. Testing on specific topics helps psychologists to identify personality traits.

Empirical method in economics

The empirical or experimental method in economics involves the knowledge of the reality of the economic situation in the world, this is done with the help of tools:

1. economic observation- carried out by economists for the purposeful perception of economic (economic) facts, while there is no active influence on these facts, observation is important for building theoretical models of the economy.
2. economic experiment- here an active influence on the economic phenomenon is already included, various conditions are modeled within the framework of the experiment and the influence is studied.

If we take a separate segment of the economy - commodity circulation, then the empirical methods of commodity science will be as follows:

• measurements with the help of technical devices or sense organs (method-operations measuring, organoleptic;
• survey and monitoring of the market (methods-actions).

Publication date: 28.10.2017 11:37

The first part of the WRC in psychology is a theoretical study. It involves the study of literature on the topic of research, generalization of the material, its analysis and structured presentation.

Graduation papers in many humanities contain only empirical research. But in psychology, researchers seek to test their theories in practice. Therefore, the second part of the course, diploma and master's work in psychology is an empirical study.

What is empirical research in psychology

The term "empirical" is synonymous with the word practical, associated with experience. Therefore, the second chapter of a diploma or term paper in psychology is also called the “Practical Chapter” or “Experimental-Experimental Chapter”.

The logic of the graduate work in psychology is as follows:

• First, the student studies what other researchers have done within the framework of their chosen topic. Gets acquainted with theoretical models of psychological phenomena, as well as with the results of empirical research.
• Based on a theoretical analysis of other people's work and their own ideas, the student develops a plan for his own empirical research.
• Next, a student-psychologist conducts an empirical study, analyzes its results and draws conclusions.

What is the essence of empirical research in psychology?

Its main feature is that it allows you to study the laws of the human psyche, the laws of thinking, emotional life, behavior, etc.

The main instrument of empirical research in psychology is the tools of psychological diagnostics - tests, questionnaires, questionnaires, etc. With their help, the psychologist-researcher receives empirical data, subjects them to mathematical analysis and, on its basis, draws conclusions about psychological patterns.

The results of empirical research in psychology claim the status of a psychological law or regularity. This brings psychology closer to the exact sciences, such as physics.

However, in psychology there are many theories and models that are actively used in the practice of psychotherapy and counseling. But these models have not been empirically tested. However, the lack of empirical validity does not make these theories less valuable. This fact reflects the belonging of psychology to humanities where it is impossible to obtain exact knowledge about the object.

Structure of the empirical study

The structure of the empirical research is reflected in the first paragraph of the second (practical) chapter of the course, diploma or master's work in psychology and includes the following elements.

Purpose of empirical research, as a rule, coincides with the purpose of the whole work. Most often, this goal can be associated either with the identification of relationships between psychological indicators, or with the identification of differences in the severity of psychological parameters in two groups of subjects, divided by any sign.

Tasks of empirical research reflect the sequence of steps that must be taken to achieve the goal of empirical research. For example, they may include:

1. Selection of psychodiagnostic methods.
2. Formation of a sample of an empirical study.
3. Conducting psychodiagnostics and compiling a summary table of the results of psychological testing.
4. Qualitative analysis of the obtained data.
5. Statistical processing of the results of psychodiagnostics.
6. Interpretation of the results of mathematical processing.
7. Formulation of conclusions.

Empirical Research Hypothesis, as a rule, coincides with the hypothesis of the entire work and reflects the assumption about the relationship of indicators or their differences. There may be several hypotheses if the study uses many psychological indicators. Sometimes it is appropriate to formulate a general hypothesis, and then specify it in several particular ones. For example:

General hypothesis: there are differences in motivation among employees of the organization of different sexes.

Particular hypotheses: 1) men are distinguished by a greater degree of motivation to achieve success; 2) women are distinguished by a greater degree of approval motivation.

Empirical Study Sample- these are the subjects or respondents who will participate in the testing. When forming a sample, it is important that all subjects have similar socio-demographic characteristics. The work usually indicates the gender, age, education of the respondents. If necessary, you can specify marital status, professional experience. The choice of characteristics is determined by the purpose and objectives of the study. For example, if the personal factors of professional burnout of teachers are studied, then it is hardly necessary to indicate the number of children when describing the sample.

Methods of empirical research- these are the tools that a psychologist uses to obtain empirical data about psychological features test subjects. There are the following types of methods used in the WRC in psychology:

1. Questionnaires. This type of method involves asking subjects about their socio-demographic characteristics, as well as some psychological characteristics. Questionnaires are not strictly reliable and valid psychological tools. Therefore, their data are of a reference and auxiliary nature.
2. Questionnaires and tests are psychological tools standardized according to certain rules. With their help, you can get data about the psychological characteristics of the subjects. These data are considered valid and reliable, that is, reliable. This type of empirical research methods is most often used in term papers, diploma and master's programs in psychology.
3. Projective Methods also allow you to obtain data on the psychological characteristics of the subjects, like questionnaires, but they are less standardized. Projective tests are rarely used in psychology WRCs, as their results are difficult to translate into numerical indicators. Projective methods are more appropriate in clinical and psychotherapeutic practice for individual work.

The next important element of empirical research is the results of empirical research and their analysis. Considering its importance, let's dwell on it in more detail.

Results of empirical research and their analysis

The meaning of empirical research in psychology is to obtain results and, after analyzing them, to formulate a conclusion about certain psychological patterns.

There are several types of results of empirical research, reflecting the successive stages of their processing.

1. The first type of empirical research results are test results. The answers of the subjects to psychological questionnaires are processed by keys and entered into a summary table of results (it is usually placed in the application).
2. The second type of empirical research results are the results of statistical data processing. For example, a summary table of psychodiagnostic results is entered into a statistical program (for example, STATISTICA or SPSS) and correlations are calculated or differences are analyzed. These results are given in the text of the work and are accompanied by a description and interpretation.

Usually, the analysis of the results of an empirical study is carried out in two stages:

1. The first stage is a qualitative analysis of the data obtained by all psychodiagnostic methods. It involves the construction of histograms or tables with distributions of indicators, as well as charts of average values.
2. The second stage is the statistical analysis of the data. This stage involves the presentation of the results of statistical calculations in the form of tables. Below the tables is a description of the results and their interpretation.

Let's take an example of the analysis of the results of an empirical study, the purpose of which was to compare the coping strategies of young people from Russia and the United States.

Let only one method be used - the Questionnaire "Methods of Coping Behavior" by R. Lazarus and S. Folkman (adapted by T.L. Kryukov, E.V. Kuftyak, M.S. Zamyshlyaev).

The sample included two groups of subjects: Group 1. Young people, citizens of Russia, 60 people (30 boys and 30 girls), age - from 20 to 25 years; live in Moscow; Group 2. Young people, US citizens, 60 people (30 boys and 30 girls), age - from 20 to 25 years; reside in New York.

At the stage of qualitative analysis, we compare the structure of coping strategies in groups, presenting them in the form of a graph.

On fig. 1 shows the structures of coping strategies of young people from Russia and the USA.

An analysis of the data shown in Fig. 1 shows that in the group of subjects from Russia, such coping strategies as the search for social support and distancing are most pronounced. The least expressed are flight-avoidance and self-control.

In the group of subjects from the United States, such coping strategies as planning a solution to a problem and taking responsibility are most pronounced. The least expressed are flight-avoidance and confrontational coping.

Some common features of the structure of coping strategies in groups of subjects can be noted. Escape-avoidance coping is the least pronounced among young people from Russia and the United States, that is, regardless of citizenship, young residents of megacities are not inclined to overcome negative experiences due to difficulties by responding by the type of evasion: denying the problem, fantasizing, unjustified expectations, distraction etc. Such a result may reflect the specifics of life in a metropolis, where infantile forms of behavior in DLS do not allow one to achieve success.

We can also note equally low values ​​for confrontational coping, which means that young people from Russia and the United States are equally unwilling to resolve problems through conflict behavior and outburst of emotions.

At the second stage of the analysis of the results of the empirical study, we carry out a statistical analysis of the data using the Mann-Whitney U-test, which allows us to identify statistically significant differences in the severity of coping strategies in the two groups.

The results of the calculation of significant differences in the indicators of coping strategies of young people from Russia and the United States are shown in Table 1.

Table 1. The results of the calculation of statistically significant differences in coping strategies and resilience of young people from Russia and the United States.

	Averages		Mann-Whitney U test	Level of statistical significance (p)
	Russia	USA
Confrontational coping	43,6	44,3	1777	0,904
distancing	62,1	49,0	1136	0,000*
self control	45,3	50,8	1348,5	0,018*
Seeking social support	65,7	49,3		0,000*
Taking responsibility	54,9	54,0	1690,5	0,565
escape-avoidance	41,8	41,4	1718	0,667
Problem solving planning	50,4	56,4	1293,5	0,008*
Positive revaluation	45,3	45,2	1760	0,834

* - differences are statistically significant (р≤0.05)

Analysis of the data given in Table 1 allows us to draw the following conclusions:

The level of the coping strategy "distancing" is statistically significantly higher in the group of young people from Russia. This means that, compared with Americans, Russian subjects tend to overcome difficult life situations due to a subjective decrease in its significance and the degree of emotional involvement in it; they are more characterized by the use of intellectual methods of rationalization, switching attention, detachment, humor, depreciation, etc.

The level of the coping strategy "search for social support" is statistically significantly higher in the group of young people from Russia. This means that, compared to Americans, Russian subjects tend to solve problems by attracting external (social) resources, seeking informational, emotional, and effective support; they are characterized by a focus on interacting with other people, expecting support, attention, advice, sympathy, specific effective help.

The level of the “self-control” coping strategy is statistically significantly higher in the group of young people from the USA. This means that, compared with Russians, American subjects tend to overcome difficult life situations by purposefully suppressing and restraining emotions, minimizing their influence on the perception of the situation and choosing a behavior strategy with high control of behavior and striving for self-control.

The level of the coping strategy "problem solving planning" is statistically significantly higher in the group of young people from the USA. This means that, compared with Russians, American subjects tend to overcome difficult life situations by purposefully analyzing the situation and possible behaviors, developing a strategy for solving the problem, planning their own actions, taking into account objective conditions, past experience and available resources.

It can be noted that there were no statistically significant differences in hardiness indicators in groups of young people from Russia and the United States. This means that despite the differences in the ways of coping with stress and SAD, the measure of the ability of young people from Russia and the United States to withstand a stressful situation, while maintaining internal balance and without reducing the success of their activities, does not differ.

Thus, the analysis made it possible to identify the national characteristics of coping with TJS among young Russians and Americans.

Young people from Russia in difficult life situations tend to move away from the situation and thereby reduce its significance for themselves, and this manifests a certain contemplativeness of the Russian mentality. It is also shown that young people from Moscow are more inclined than their New York peers to resort to social support in TLS, which can be seen as a reflection of collectivist tendencies in the Russian character as opposed to individualistic tendencies in the American one.

Young Americans are more likely than their Russian peers to show self-control and control their behavior in TLS, which reflects the national trait of Americans for emotional restraint. Also, young people from the United States, in contrast to their Russian peers, are more prone to planning a solution to a problem, which reflects the propensity of Americans in general to be success-oriented, which involves planning activities.

1. A brief description of the specific result of the statistical processing. For example, "The level of the coping strategy" distancing "is statistically significantly higher in the group of young people from Russia."
2. Extended description of the result of statistic processing. For example, “This means that, compared with Americans, Russian subjects tend to overcome difficult life situations due to the subjective decrease in its significance and the degree of emotional involvement in it; they are more characterized by the use of intellectual methods of rationalization, switching attention, detachment, humor, depreciation, etc.”
3. Interpretation of the result of statistical processing. For example, “The revealed differences in the use of the “distancing” coping strategy, from our point of view, are associated with differences in the Russian and American mentality. In particular, with the greater activity of Americans in foreign activities and the greater contemplation of Russians.
4. A generalizing conclusion based on the results of the analysis of statistical data: “So, the analysis made it possible to identify the national characteristics of coping with TJS among young Russians and Americans.
5. Young people from Russia in difficult life situations tend to move away from the situation and thereby reduce its significance for ... (see above)”

Types of Empirical Research in Psychology WRCs

Most often, in term papers, diploma or master's theses in psychology, within the framework of empirical research, it is supposed to state some psychological patterns. That is, to reveal what is and this type of research is called ascertaining.

For example, in the example above, we see the pattern ascertaining research- the researcher reveals differences in coping strategies among students from the USA and Russia and does not influence the situation in any way.

However, in some cases, psychologists are not limited to ascertaining, but want to somehow correct or improve the situation.

For example, a psychologist conducts a comparative analysis of anxiety in older boys and girls. preschool age. Receives some data, for example, that in the group of boys the number of children with very high level anxiety is statistically significantly higher than in the group of girls.

One can, of course, confine oneself to stating this fact. However, most often the task is to correct anxiety in children. This problem is solved in the framework formative research.

Thus, the purpose of the formative study is the correction (reduction) of any unfavorable psychological quality that is excessively expressed in the subjects. It can be anxiety, aggressiveness, a tendency to deviant behavior, etc.

The goal of formative research may also be the development of some positive psychological quality that is not sufficiently developed in the subjects. It can be, for example, self-actualization, self-attitude, self-confidence, etc.

The forms of implementation of the formative experiment can be various corrective or developmental programs, psychological trainings, etc.

And, finally, the third type of empirical research in psychology graduate theses is control study. Its purpose is to check how effective the program of correction or development of any psychological quality turned out to be.

As a rule, as part of a formative empirical study, the subjects are retested according to the methods that were used in the ascertaining study.

If the indicators have improved, for example, the aggressiveness of adolescents has decreased or the stress resistance of employees has increased, then the program or training is recognized as effective.

IN term papers in psychology, only ascertaining research is carried out.

In bachelor's theses and dissertations in psychology, ascertaining variants of empirical research are most often encountered, but it is also possible to use formative and control studies.

Master's theses in psychology often contain topics that involve formative and control empirical research.

It is opposed to a priori, pre-experimental knowledge, accessible through purely speculative thinking.

Concept values

Empirical data is information that confirms the belief that a statement is true or false. From the point of view of empiricism, it is possible to claim knowledge of something only if there is a true representation based on empirical data. Such a position differs from the rationalist approach, in which the proof of the truth or falsity of some proposition can be a conclusion. The main source of empirical data is sense perception. Although other sources of data, such as the memory and readings of other people, are ultimately reduced to sensory perception, they are considered secondary, or indirect.

In another sense, the expression "empirical data" means the result of an experiment. In this context, the concept of "semi-empirical methods" is also used - clarifying theoretical methods in which, along with the results of experiments, basic axioms or postulated scientific laws are used.

The problem of the neutrality of empirical knowledge

see also

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Notes

Literature

• Bird, Alexander . Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy(2013). Retrieved 25 January 2012.
• Craig, Edward (2005), "a posteriori", The Shorter Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy Routledge, ISBN 9780415324953

• Feldman, Richard (2001), "Evidence", in Audi, Robert, The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy(2nd ed.), Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0521637220

• Kuhn Thomas S. The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. - 2nd. - Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1970. - ISBN 978-0226458045.
• Pickett, Joseph P., ed. (2011), "Empirical", The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language(5th ed.), Houghton Mifflin, ISBN 978-0-547-04101-8

An excerpt characterizing Empirical data

In June, the Battle of Friedland took place, in which the Pavlogradites did not participate, and after it a truce was announced. Rostov, who felt hard the absence of his friend, having had no news of him since his departure and worrying about the course of his case and wounds, took advantage of the truce and asked to go to the hospital to visit Denisov.
The hospital was located in a small Prussian town, twice ruined by Russian and French troops. Precisely because it was summer, when the field was so good, this place, with its broken roofs and fences and its filthy streets, ragged inhabitants and drunken and sick soldiers wandering around it, presented a particularly gloomy spectacle.
In a stone house, in the courtyard with the remains of a dismantled fence, frames and glass broken in part, a hospital was located. Several bandaged, pale and swollen soldiers walked and sat in the yard in the sun.
As soon as Rostov entered the door of the house, he was overwhelmed by the smell of a rotting body and a hospital. On the stairs he met a Russian military doctor with a cigar in his mouth. A Russian paramedic followed the doctor.
“I can’t burst,” said the doctor; - come to Makar Alekseevich in the evening, I'll be there. The paramedic asked him something else.
- E! do as you know! Isn't it all the same? The doctor saw Rostov going up the stairs.
“Why are you, your honor?” the doctor said. - Why are you? Or the bullet did not take you, so you want to get typhus? Here, father, is the house of the lepers.
- From what? Rostov asked.
- Typhoid, father. Whoever ascends - death. Only the two of us with Makeev (he pointed to the paramedic) are chatting here. At this point, five of our brother doctors died. As soon as the new one arrives, he’ll be ready in a week,” the doctor said with visible pleasure. - Prussian doctors were called, so our allies do not like it.
Rostov explained to him that he wished to see the hussar major Denisov lying here.
“I don’t know, I don’t know, father. After all, you think, I have three hospitals for one, 400 patients too! It’s also good, the Prussian ladies of the benefactor send us coffee and lint at two pounds a month, otherwise they would be lost. He laughed. - 400, father; and they keep sending me new ones. After all, there are 400? BUT? He turned to the paramedic.
The paramedic looked exhausted. He evidently waited with annoyance to see if the chattering doctor would leave soon.
“Major Denisov,” repeated Rostov; - he was wounded near Moliten.
- Looks like he's dead. What about Makeev? the doctor asked the paramedic indifferently.
The paramedic, however, did not confirm the words of the doctor.
- Why is he so long, reddish? the doctor asked.
Rostov described Denisov's appearance.
“There was, there was such a person,” the doctor said as if joyfully, “this one must have died, but I can handle it, I had lists. Do you have it, Makeev?
“Makar Alekseich has the lists,” said the paramedic. “But come to the officers’ chambers, you’ll see for yourself there,” he added, turning to Rostov.
“Oh, it’s better not to go, father,” said the doctor, “otherwise you don’t stay here yourself.” - But Rostov bowed to the doctor and asked the paramedic to accompany him.
"Don't blame me," the doctor shouted from under the stairs.
Rostov with the paramedic entered the corridor. The hospital smell was so strong in this dark corridor that Rostov grabbed his nose and had to stop in order to gather his strength and move on. A door opened to the right, and a thin, yellow man, barefoot and in nothing but underwear, leaned out on crutches.
Leaning against the lintel, he looked at the passers-by with shining, envious eyes. Glancing through the door, Rostov saw that the sick and wounded were lying there on the floor, on straw and overcoats.
- Can I come in and have a look? Rostov asked.
- What to watch? the paramedic said. But precisely because the paramedic obviously did not want to let him in, Rostov entered the soldiers' chambers. The smell he had already smelled in the hallway was even stronger here. This smell has changed somewhat here; it was sharper, and it was sensitive that it was precisely from here that he came.
In a long room, brightly lit by the sun through large windows, in two rows, with their heads to the walls and leaving a passage in the middle, lay the sick and the wounded. Most of them were in oblivion and did not pay attention to those who entered. Those that were in the memory all rose or raised their thin, yellow faces, and all with the same expression of hope for help, reproach and envy of someone else's health, without taking their eyes off Rostov. Rostov went to the middle of the room, looked into the neighboring doors of the rooms with the doors open, and saw the same thing on both sides. He stopped, silently looking around him. He never expected to see this. In front of him lay almost across the middle aisle, on the bare floor, a sick man, probably a Cossack, because his hair was cut in a bracket. This Cossack was lying on his back, his huge arms and legs spread out. His face was crimson red, his eyes were completely rolled up, so that only the whites were visible, and on his bare feet and on his hands, still red, the veins tensed like ropes. He hit the back of his head on the floor and said something hoarsely and began to repeat this word. Rostov listened to what he was saying and made out the word he repeated. The word was: drink - drink - drink! Rostov looked around, looking for someone who could put this patient in his place and give him water.