Ancient history of Africa. Africa: history of the countries of the continent

The oldest archaeological finds indicating grain processing in Africa date back to the thirteenth millennium BC. e. Cattle raising in the Sahara began ca. 7500 BC e., and organized Agriculture appeared in the Nile region in the 6th millennium BC. e.
In the Sahara, which was then a fertile territory, groups of hunters and fishermen lived, as evidenced by archaeological finds. Many petroglyphs and rock paintings have been discovered throughout the Sahara, dating back to 6000 BC. e. until the 7th century AD e. The most famous monument of primitive art in North Africa is the Tassilin-Ajjer plateau.

Ancient Africa

In the 6th-5th millennium BC. e. In the Nile Valley, agricultural cultures developed (Tassian culture, Fayum, Merimde), based on the civilization of Christian Ethiopia (XII-XVI centuries). These centers of civilization were surrounded by pastoral tribes of Libyans, as well as the ancestors of modern Cushitic and Nilotic-speaking peoples.
On the territory of the modern Sahara Desert (which was then a savannah favorable for habitation) by the 4th millennium BC. e. A cattle-breeding and agricultural economy is taking shape. From the middle of the 3rd millennium BC. e., when the Sahara begins to dry out, the population of the Sahara retreats to the south, pushing out the local population of Tropical Africa. By the middle of the 2nd millennium BC. e. the horse is spreading in the Sahara. On the basis of horse breeding (from the first centuries AD - also camel breeding) and oasis agriculture in the Sahara, an urban civilization developed (the cities of Telgi, Debris, Garama), and Libyan writing arose. On the Mediterranean coast of Africa in the 12th-2nd centuries BC. e. The Phoenician-Carthaginian civilization flourished.
In sub-Saharan Africa in the 1st millennium BC. e. Iron metallurgy is spreading everywhere. The Bronze Age culture did not develop here, and there was a direct transition from the Neolithic to the Iron Age. Iron Age cultures spread to both the west (Nok) and east (northeastern Zambia and southwestern Tanzania) of Tropical Africa. The spread of iron contributed to the development of new territories, primarily tropical forests, and became one of the reasons for the settlement of peoples speaking Bantu languages ​​throughout most of Tropical and Southern Africa, pushing representatives of the Ethiopian and Capoid races to the north and south.

The emergence of the first states in Africa

According to modern historical science, the first state (sub-Saharan) appeared on the territory of Mali in the 3rd century - it was the state of Ghana. Ancient Ghana traded gold and metals even with the Roman Empire and Byzantium. Perhaps this state arose much earlier, but during the existence of the colonial authorities of England and France there, all information about Ghana disappeared (the colonialists did not want to admit that Ghana was much older than England and France). Under the influence of Ghana, other states later appeared in West Africa - Mali, Songhai, Kanem, Tekrur, Hausa, Ife, Kano and other West African states.
Another hotbed of the emergence of states in Africa is the area around Lake Victoria (the territory of modern Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi). The first state appeared there around the 11th century - it was the state of Kitara. In my opinion, the state of Kitara was created by settlers from the territory of modern Sudan - Nilotic tribes who were forced out of their territory by Arab settlers. Later other states appeared there - Buganda, Rwanda, Ankole.
Around the same time (according to scientific history) - in the 11th century, the state of Mopomotale appeared in southern Africa, which would disappear at the end of the 17th century (it would be destroyed by wild tribes). I believe that Mopomotale began to exist much earlier, and the inhabitants of this state are the descendants of the most ancient metallurgists in the world, who had connections with the Asuras and Atlanteans.
Around the middle of the 12th century, the first state appeared in the center of Africa - Ndongo (this is a territory in the north of modern Angola). Later, other states appeared in the center of Africa - Congo, Matamba, Mwata and Baluba. Since the 15th century, the colonial states of Europe - Portugal, the Netherlands, Belgium, England, France and Germany - began to intervene in the development of statehood in Africa. If at first they were interested in gold, silver and precious stones, then later slaves became the main product (and these were dealt with by countries that officially rejected the existence of slavery).
Slaves were transported by the thousands to America's plantations. Only much later, at the end of the 19th century, did colonialists begin to be attracted to natural resources in Africa. And it was for this reason that vast colonial territories appeared in Africa. Colonies in Africa interrupted the development of the peoples of Africa and distorted its entire history. Until now, significant archaeological research has not been carried out in Africa (African countries themselves are poor, and England and France do not need the true history of Africa, just like in Russia, Russia also has good research on ancient history Rus' is not being carried out, money is spent on buying castles and yachts in Europe, total corruption deprives science of real research).

Africa in the Middle Ages

The centers of civilizations in Tropical Africa spread from north to south (in the eastern part of the continent) and partly from east to west (especially in the western part) - as they moved away from the high civilizations of North Africa and the Middle East. Most of the large socio-cultural communities of Tropical Africa had an incomplete set of signs of civilization, so they can more accurately be called proto-civilizations. From the end of the 3rd century AD. e. in West Africa, in the basins of Senegal and Niger, the Western Sudanese (Ghana) civilization developed, and from the 8th-9th centuries - the Central Sudanese (Kanem) civilization, which arose on the basis of trans-Saharan trade with the Mediterranean countries.
After the Arab conquests of North Africa (7th century), the Arabs for a long time became the only intermediaries between Tropical Africa and the rest of the world, including through the Indian Ocean, where the Arab fleet dominated. Under Arab influence, new urban civilizations emerged in Nubia, Ethiopia and East Africa. The cultures of Western and Central Sudan merged into a single West African, or Sudanese, zone of civilizations, stretching from Senegal to the modern Republic of Sudan. In the 2nd millennium, this zone was united politically and economically in the Muslim empires: Mali (XIII-XV centuries), which controlled the small political formations of the Fulani, Wolof, Serer, Susu and Songhai peoples (Tekrur, Jolof, Sin, Salum, Kayor, Coco and others), Songhai (mid-15th - late 16th century) and Bornu (late 15th - early 18th century) - Kanem's successor. Between Songhai and Bornu, from the beginning of the 16th century, the Hausan city-states strengthened (Daura, Zamfara, Kano, Rano, Gobir, Katsina, Zaria, Biram, Kebbi, etc.), to which in the 17th century the role of the main centers of the trans-Saharan revolution passed from Songhai and Bornu trade.
South of the Sudanese civilizations in the 1st millennium AD. e. The proto-civilization of Ife was formed, which became the cradle of the Yoruba and Bini civilizations (Benin, Oyo). Its influence was experienced by the Dahomeans, Igbo, Nupe, and others. To the west of it, in the 2nd millennium, the Akano-Ashanti proto-civilization was formed, which flourished in the 17th - early 19th centuries. To the south of the great bend of the Niger, a political center arose, founded by the Mossi and other peoples speaking the Gur languages ​​(the so-called Mossi-Dagomba-Mamprusi complex) and transformed by the middle of the 15th century into the Voltic proto-civilization (early political formations of Ouagadougou, Yatenga, Gurma , Dagomba, Mamprusi). In Central Cameroon, the Bamum and Bamileke proto-civilization arose, in the Congo River basin - the Vungu proto-civilization (early political formations of Congo, Ngola, Loango, Ngoyo, Kakongo), to the south of it (in the 16th century) - the proto-civilization of the southern savannas (early political formations of Cuba, Lunda, Luba), in the Great Lakes region - an interlake proto-civilization: the early political formations of Buganda (XIII century), Kitara (XIII-XV century), Bunyoro (from the 16th century), later - Nkore (XVI century), Rwanda (XVI century), Burundi ( XVI century), Karagwe (XVII century), Kiziba (XVII century), Busoga (XVII century), Ukereve (late 19th century), Toro (late 19th century), etc.
In East Africa, since the 10th century, the Swahili Muslim civilization flourished (the city-states of Kilwa, Pate, Mombasa, Lamu, Malindi, Sofala, etc., the Sultanate of Zanzibar), in South-East Africa - the Zimbabwean (Zimbabwe, Monomotapa) proto-civilization (X-XIX century), in Madagascar the process of state formation ended at the beginning of the 19th century with the unification of all the early political formations of the island around Imerina, which arose around the 15th century.
Most African civilizations and proto-civilizations experienced a rise at the end of the 15th and 16th centuries. From the end of the 16th century, with the penetration of Europeans and the development of the transatlantic slave trade, which lasted until the mid-19th century, their decline occurred. By the beginning of the 17th century, all of North Africa (except Morocco) became part of the Ottoman Empire. With the final division of Africa between European powers (1880s), the colonial period began, forcing Africans into industrial civilization.

Colonization of Africa

In ancient times, North Africa was the object of colonization by Europe and Asia Minor.
The first attempts by Europeans to subjugate African territories date back to the times of ancient Greek colonization in the 7th-5th centuries BC, when numerous Greek colonies appeared on the coasts of Libya and Egypt. The conquests of Alexander the Great marked the beginning of a rather long period of Hellenization of Egypt. Although the bulk of its inhabitants, the Copts, were never Hellenized, the rulers of this country (including the last queen Cleopatra) adopted the Greek language and culture, which completely dominated Alexandria.
The city of Carthage was founded on the territory of modern Tunisia by the Phoenicians and was one of the most important powers in the Mediterranean until the 4th century BC. e. After the Third Punic War it was conquered by the Romans and became the center of the province of Africa. In the early Middle Ages, the kingdom of the Vandals was founded in this territory, and later it was part of Byzantium.
The invasions of Roman troops made it possible to consolidate the entire northern coast of Africa under Roman control. Despite the extensive economic and architectural activities of the Romans, the territories underwent weak Romanization, apparently due to excessive aridity and the incessant activity of the Berber tribes, pushed aside but unconquered by the Romans.
The ancient Egyptian civilization also fell under the rule of first the Greeks and then the Romans. In the context of the decline of the empire, the Berbers, activated by the Vandals, finally destroy the centers of European, as well as Christian, civilization in North Africa in anticipation of the invasion of the Arabs, who brought Islam with them and pushed back the Byzantine Empire, which still controlled Egypt. By the beginning of the 7th century AD. e. The activities of early European states in Africa cease completely; on the contrary, the expansion of Arabs from Africa takes place in many regions of Southern Europe.
Attacks of Spanish and Portuguese troops in the XV-XVI centuries. led to the capture of a number of strongholds in Africa (the Canary Islands, as well as the fortresses of Ceuta, Melilla, Oran, Tunisia, and many others). Italian sailors from Venice and Genoa have also traded extensively with the region since the 13th century.
At the end of the 15th century, the Portuguese actually controlled the western coast of Africa and launched an active slave trade. Following them, other Western European powers rush to Africa: the Dutch, the French, the British.
From the 17th century, Arab trade with sub-Saharan Africa led to the gradual colonization of East Africa, in the area of ​​Zanzibar. And although Arab neighborhoods appeared in some cities in West Africa, they did not become colonies, and Morocco’s attempt to subjugate the Sahel lands ended unsuccessfully.
Early European expeditions concentrated on colonizing uninhabited islands such as Cape Verde and São Tomé, and establishing forts on the coast as trading posts.
In the second half of the 19th century, especially after the Berlin Conference of 1885, the process of colonization of Africa acquired such a scale that it was called the “race for Africa”; Almost the entire continent (except for Ethiopia and Liberia, which remained independent) by 1900 was divided between a number of European powers: Great Britain, France, Germany, Belgium, Italy; Spain and Portugal retained their old colonies and somewhat expanded them. During the First World War, Germany lost (mostly already in 1914) its African colonies, which after the war came under the administration of other colonial powers under the mandates of the League of Nations.
Russian empire never claimed to colonize Africa, despite a traditionally strong position in Ethiopia, except for the Sagallo incident in 1889.

The history of Africa is a history of mysteries.

Modern African states appeared on the political map mainly after 1959, many of them were colonies of England, France, and Portugal. The colonial period left a strong imprint on African historical scholarship. The colonialists considered themselves the carriers of civilization to the “savage” African countries. Many ancient historical monuments were destroyed. Therefore, modern African historical scholarship begins from scratch (with the exception of Egypt and Ethiopia). Was it really true that before the advent of the British, Portuguese and French, there were only wild tribes in Africa? (by the way, Western scientists are constantly trying to convince Russians that the history of ancient Rus' began with the advent of the Varangians (Normans, Anglo-Saxons from Scandinavia, and before their appearance the Russians did not have any civilization or state).

Whether this was so, I will briefly explain in this article. I'll start with some unclear facts.

Iron metallurgy appeared in Africa much earlier than in Europe. In Africa, iron was smelted back in the 1st millennium BC. The ancient states of the East brought iron from Africa and this iron was of much higher quality than in the countries of the Ancient East (Egypt, Palestine, Babylonia and India). Even the Roman Empire brought iron and gold from West Africa (these countries were called the Gold Coast countries). And the ancient Egyptians called the countries of Africa the country of Ophir, from where many rare goods were brought.

There were many ancient states in Africa that are very poorly studied due to the activities of the colonial countries.

And now I will tell you my point of view on the ancient history of Africa (which will fundamentally not coincide with official historical science).

17 million years ago the continent of Africa did not yet exist; in place of Africa there were small islands (especially in its eastern part). The largest continent on Earth was Lemuria and it was inhabited by the first people (they can be called Lemurians or Asuras) and they had a very developed civilization.

4 million years ago - at that time the continent of Lemuria began to sink to the bottom of the Indian Ocean, and the continent of Africa (its eastern part) began to rise above the waters of the World Ocean. Some of the asuras from Lemuria began to move from Lemuria to East Africa. They later became Pygmies, Bushmen, Hottentots, Hadza, Sandawe.

1 million years ago - only one island remained from the mainland of Lemuria - Magadascar. The African continent rose even more strongly above sea level.

Approximately 800 thousand years ago, the continent of Lemuria completely disappeared at the bottom of the Indian Ocean, and appeared in the Atlantic big continent Atlantis and the Atlantean civilization. It is unknown who was the first to use Africa's natural resources (iron, non-ferrous metals, gold and silver). These could be the descendants of the Asuras, but they could also be Atlanteans. Their civilization also required a lot of iron, non-ferrous metals and gold. After all, it was the Atlantean civilization that began to lead all of humanity onto the wrong path of development (the path of enrichment, the path of conquest). It was the Atlanteans who invented a new status for subordinate people - slavery. It was at this time that man began to worship a new fetish (god) - money, luxury, gold.

Around 79 thousand years BC. The mainland of Atlantis suffered the fate of ancient Lemuria - the mainland went under the waters of the Atlantic, leaving only the island of Poseidonis, where the late Atlanteans lived. Some of the Atlanteans also began to move to Africa. The continent of Africa has mainly acquired modern look, but the Sahara territory was still under water.

Around 9500 BC, the island of Poseidonis completely disappeared into the Atlantic. Some of the descendants of the Atlanteans settled in northern Africa (tribes of the Oran and Sebilka archaeological culture). The rest of the territory was inhabited by tribes of pygmies and Khoisans (these are descendants of degraded asuras). It is likely that during these times the civilization of African metallurgists in South Africa (the territory of Zambia and Zimbabwe) continued to exist, because iron and gold were required by the new civilizations of the Ancient East (Egypt and Palestine, the State of Jericho).

By about 9000 BC, Africa was the same as it is now, only the Sahara was not a desert, humid subtropics, and the descendants of the Atlanteans (tribes of the Oran and Sebilian culture) lived there. To the south of the Sahara (at the junction of the northern tribes and the southern tribes of the Pygmies and Khoisans), Negroid peoples begin to take shape.

Around 5700, the Earth collapses in northern Africa a new group peoples - the Saharan peoples (these are tribes of the Capsian archaeological culture). Perhaps at this time the metallurgy of iron and other metals continued to exist in southern Africa. After all, new states in the Middle East continued to develop. It is also possible that on the basis of African metallurgy, the Asuras (not those who degraded, but those who continued to develop in the direction of conquering space - they lived in Tibet, the mainland of Mu) and Atlanteans (who also strove into space) built the first spaceships.

By the end of 4 thousand BC, the Sahara is becoming an increasingly arid region, the Saharan peoples are increasingly moving south of the Sahara, their place is taken by Libyan tribes (future Berbers). Due to the pressure of the Sakha people, the Negroid peoples also begin to move south and begin to push back the pygmies of the center of Africa. I think that during this period the metallurgy of southern Africa developed for the late Asuras and late Atlanteans (for space exploration), as well as for the rapidly growing states of the Ancient East (Egypt, the Middle East, Sumer, Northern India). At this time, small states began to appear in Europe (Crete, Greece).

By 1100 BC, a new group of peoples had formed in Africa - the Bantu. They first lived in the territory of modern Cameroon and Nigeria, from this territory they began an active movement to southern Africa, displacing and destroying the Pygmies and Khoisans. At the same time, a new people appeared on the northern coast of Africa - the Garamantes (these were former inhabitants of Ancient Greece, displaced from there by the Dorian Greeks). In my opinion, at this time, iron metallurgy in southern Africa began to develop weaker, since the asuras had already been able to conquer space by this time and no longer needed the products of African metallurgists; the Atlanteans may also have begun to take less iron and non-ferrous metals, since in the countries of the Ancient Iron metallurgy was mastered in the East.

By the beginning of our era, the Bantu peoples had already reached the territory of Zambia, where metallurgy by this time had fallen into decay, the civilization of metallurgists had almost disappeared, and the Bantu did not master this craft. At the same time, many new deposits of iron, non-ferrous metals and gold were discovered in East Africa, and metallurgy began to develop there. Perhaps this development occurred due to the appearance of the Garamantes there (after all, they were well-versed in the skills of metallurgists). It was from this time that Roman merchants (via the Sahara) began to visit West Africa and buy iron, non-ferrous metals and gold there.

The question of the emergence of the earliest states in Africa (not counting Egypt, Sudan, Ethiopia and the Mediterranean coast) is the most unclear in the study of African history. There could be no developed microthallurgy without civilization (without a state). But it is also possible that the metallurgists of southern Africa existed as part of the civilization of the later Asuras and Atlanteans. And after the services of metallurgists became unnecessary for the asuras and Atlanteans (they had already become space civilizations), metallurgy in southern Africa ceased to exist, although there existed the state of Mopomotale at the end of the 17th century, which disappeared at the end of the 17th century due to the appearance of new tribes there that did not know metallurgy (it was the Ravi tribes that destroyed this state).

According to modern historical science, the first state (sub-Saharan) appeared on the territory of Mali in the 3rd century - it was the state of Ghana. Ancient Ghana traded gold and metals even with the Roman Empire and Byzantium. Perhaps this state arose much earlier, but during the existence of the colonial authorities of England and France there, all information about Ghana disappeared (the colonialists did not want to admit that Ghana was much older than England and France). Under the influence of Ghana, other states later appeared in West Africa - Mali, Songhai, Kanem, Tekrur, Hausa, Ife, Kano and other West African states.

Another hotbed of the emergence of states in Africa is the area around Lake Victoria (the territory of modern Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi). The first state appeared there around the 11th century - it was the state of Kitara. In my opinion, the state of Kitara was created by settlers from the territory of modern Sudan - Nilotic tribes, who were forced out of their territory by Arab settlers. Later other states appeared there - Buganda, Rwanda, Ankole.

Around the same time (according to scientific history) - in the 11th century, the state of Mopomotale appeared in southern Africa, which will disappear at the end of the 17th century (will be destroyed by wild tribes). I believe that Mopomotale began to exist much earlier, and the inhabitants of this state are the descendants of the most ancient metallurgists in the world, who had connections with the Asuras and Atlanteans.

Around the middle of the 12th century, the first state appeared in the center of Africa - Ndongo (this is a territory in the north of modern Angola). Later, other states appeared in the center of Africa - Congo, Matamba, Mwata and Baluba. Since the 15th century, the colonial states of Europe - Portugal, the Netherlands, Belgium, England, France and Germany - began to intervene in the development of statehood in Africa. If at first they were interested in gold, silver and precious stones, then later slaves became the main product (and these were dealt with by countries that officially rejected the existence of slavery). Slaves were transported by the thousands to America's plantations. Only much later, at the end of the 19th century, did colonialists begin to be attracted to natural resources in Africa. And it was for this reason that vast colonial territories appeared in Africa. Colonies in Africa interrupted the development of the peoples of Africa and distorted its entire history. Until now, significant archaeological research has not been carried out in Africa (African countries themselves are poor, and England and France do not need the true history of Africa, just like in Russia, in Russia there is also no good research on the ancient history of Rus', money is spent on buying castles and yachts in Europe, total corruption deprives science of real research).

The ancient history of Africa (and Russia) still conceals many mysteries.

Saved

"/>

PART VI The Shaping of the Modern World (1750-2000)
Chapter 21. Europe and the world (1750-1900)
21.19. Africa

For more than three hundred years after 1500, direct European control over Africa was limited to a few forts and trading posts, along with a small group of settlements around the Cape of Good Hope. A major problem facing the continent, especially sub-Saharan Africa, was its very low population—in 1900, there were only about 100 million people living in Africa. This, combined with poor communications and a host of diseases, meant that the social and economic basis for building developed political structures did not exist here. When European influence began to exert greater influence on Africa at the end of the 19th century, it quickly destroyed all the structures that existed there. For the first time in world history, Africa, with the exception of the northern regions along the Mediterranean coast, found itself under the control of external powers.

In West Africa, the influence of the slave trade diminished during the 19th century, and gradually other goods, especially palm oil, began to be traded rather than people. The British controlled the area around the Gambia River, as well as the colony of Sierra Leone (where freed slaves were settled), as well as settlements on the Gold Coast and further east in Lagos. The Portuguese held several islands and the colony of Luanda on the mainland, while the French held Saint-Louis in Senegal and Libreville (founded in 1849). In 1822, the United States founded the colony of Liberia to accommodate free blacks because the Americans did not want them to live in America; Liberia became fully independent in 1847.

In the early seventies of the 19th century, the British moved inland from the Gold Coast and attacked the Ashanti kingdom, destroying its capital Kumasi, and then retreated back to the coast so as not to bind themselves to any obligations. The main power in this region during this period was the Sokoto Caliphate, founded in 1817 and representing a loose alliance of about thirty "states" that were governed by Islamic law and recognized the primacy of a central ruler in Sokoto. It was the last major slave state in the world. Further to the east, Egyptian forces advanced south into Sudan, but it was soon captured by the British (nominally becoming Anglo-Egyptian territory).

In South Africa at the beginning of the 19th century there were almost constant fighting among the peoples of the Nguni linguistic group, which led to the rise of the previously insignificant leader Chaka in the Mthethwa tribe, who founded the Zulu kingdom. Although he was assassinated in 1828, the kingdom, dominated by military leaders, survived as a major regional power. Equally important was the creation of the Swazi kingdom to the north and west of the Zulu and the Ndebele kingdom in the southwest of modern Zimbabwe, where chiefs who fled north from the Zulus ruled the local Shona people from the 1940s.

The main pressure on these kingdoms came from the south - after the British captured the Dutch colony at the Cape of Good Hope in 1806. In 1838, before the abolition of slavery in the British Empire, the number of slaves living in this colony peaked at more than 40,000. Even after the abolition of slavery, black unskilled workers remained only half free, and from 1828 the British imposed strict national segregation in the regions east of the Cape of Good Hope. This proved unbearable for many poor whites, especially farmers of Dutch origin (Afrikaner). They began to move north to the Orange River region and, by the 1940s, to the Transvaal to escape what they considered "racial equality."

The Afrikaners successfully achieved independence, but their states remained very small: even by 1870, there were still only 45,000 whites living in the Orange Free State and the Transvaal. Further to the east, the British colony of Natal grew slowly (the Zulus continued to pose a serious threat to it for decades), but in general there were no major changes in southern Africa until the discovery of huge diamond deposits in the Kimberley in 1867. The income from them was enough to finance the self-government of a small white community at the Cape of Good Hope.

In the late seventies of the 19th century, the British tried to bring the two Boer republics to the north under their control, but failed. In the 1990s, growing mineral wealth in the Transvaal prompted the British to take more decisive action. They were able to provoke a war - although it took them three years to crush the Boer resistance. The Boer republics were eventually incorporated into the white-controlled Union of South Africa, created in 1910.

In East Africa, significant changes occurred at the beginning of the 19th century, after the expulsion of the Portuguese and the establishment of the rule of the Islamic Omani dynasty. In 1785, Muslim rulers took control of Kilwa, and in 1800, the island of Zanzibar. Now all ports on the mainland coast were under the authority of the Sultan of Zanzibar. Trade routes were opened into the interior; the main items of trade were ivory and slaves. Approximately 50,000 slaves a year were sent to the Persian Gulf and Mesopotamia, and the island of Zanzibar itself had about 100,000 slaves—roughly half the population. They were mainly engaged in growing cloves for sale in Europe.

In the interior of Africa, the states that existed here stubbornly refused external contacts - by 1878, Rwanda allowed only one Arab merchant to settle in the country. Elsewhere, especially in the Great Lakes region, outside influences were much greater. The long-existing kingdom of Buganda collapsed, unable to withstand external pressure, the local economy was quickly transformed under the influence of active trade: cattle were driven about 600 miles to the coast for sale; Caravans carrying ivory and slaves were moving in the same direction; new products were brought from the coast to meet them.

As in the past, the kingdom of Ethiopia remained largely free from these influences. From about 1750 to 1850, it was hardly an organized political entity - it was ruled by local military leaders. It was reunited only in the early seventies of the 19th century during the reign of Johannes IV. He and his successor Menelik (who ruled until 1913) turned Ethiopia into a serious regional power. The new capital was the city of Addis Ababa, which reflected the continuation of the movement of the center of the state to the south, which had been going on for 1500 years.

In 1896, Ethiopia was strong enough to repel the Italians and won an unconditional victory at the Battle of Adwa. It also became an empire - and Italy recognized its complete independence. From 1880 to 1900, Ethiopia tripled in size, gaining control of Tigray, several parts of Somalia, the Ogaden, and Eritrea, where it controlled the vastly different populations that had previously formed the core of the old kingdom.

The division of Africa between European powers reflected internal pressures from Europe rather than the action of any factors existing within Africa itself. Until the seventies of the 19th century, coastal forts and trading posts of European powers merely controlled trade routes to the interior of the continent. Only a few regions were officially divided between the colonial countries, and with the exception of the Cape of Good Hope (which was climatically suitable for European settlement) they all lay along the southern shore of the Mediterranean Sea, an area of ​​great importance to European states. France captured Algeria in 1830, and Tunisia in 1881, the British dominated Egypt (although the French could not come to terms with this until 1904).

The division of sub-Saharan Africa was the result of the common fear among European powers that unless one of them achieved recognition of their own zones of control, those zones would be seized by rivals. Agreement on a significant part of these sections was achieved at a conference in Berlin in 1885-1886 (the Americans also participated in it and achieved the right to free trade in key areas). The French gained much of West Africa, but the British also expanded their colonies on the Gold Coast and Nigeria. South Africa became largely British, as did much of East Africa. Germany received its first large colonies - Cameroon, South-West Africa and East Africa (later Tanganyika). The Portuguese greatly expanded their empire, gaining Angola and Mozambique. The Congo was given to the Belgian monarch as his private domain, and it only became part of Belgium proper in 1908, after two decades of extraordinary mismanagement, plunder of resources and barbaric treatment of the population. During the reign of the Belgian monarch, about 8 million Africans died in the Congo.

Diplomats drew lines on the map and created colonies, but they completely ignored the real situation in Africa. People from close national groups found themselves separated, and tribes that were very different from each other were brought together. But in Africa, maps generally meant little, and colonial rule was still in its infancy, a process that included decades of war. Between 1871 and the outbreak of World War I, the French, British, Germans and Portuguese fought only in colonial wars. Despite this, they still could not completely control their colonies. The last major rebellion of the Ashanti people in West Africa was suppressed in 1900, but only three years earlier the British were forced to abandon much of the Somali interior and limit their influence to the coastal strip (this situation did not change until 1920). In Morocco, by 1911 the French controlled only the eastern regions and the Atlantic coast; it took them another three years to conquer Fez and the Atlas Mountains. In 1909, the Spanish were defeated when they tried to extend control beyond their coastal enclaves. Although the Italians took Libya from the Turks in 1912, they controlled little more than the coastal strip there.

Even when conquest and pacification (“pacification” was a favorite word of the Europeans) were completed, the European powers faced a serious problem: they were both strong and weak. They were strong because they could ultimately mobilize enormous military power - but weak because they usually had only limited armed forces and a scattered administration in any of their colonies.

Map 73. Africa at the beginning of the 20th century

In Nigeria, the British had 4,000 soldiers and an equal number of police, but in these forces all but 75 officers were Africans. In Northern Rhodesia (Zambia) - an area the size of Britain, Germany, Denmark, Switzerland and the Benelux countries combined - the British had only a poorly equipped battalion of 750 Africans under the command of 19 British officers and 8 sergeants. At the beginning of the 20th century, French forces in West Africa (which had a population of 16 million people living in an area fourteen times the size of France) consisted of 2,700 French sergeants and officers, 230 interpreters, 6,000 armed African gardes civiles, 14,000 African troops and one battalion, staffed exclusively by the French.

Gardes civiles - civil guard. (Approx. Transl.)

European administration in the colonies was similarly small: in 1909, the British in the Ashanti and Gold Coast regions each had five officials per half a million local population. With the exception of a few countries such as Algeria, South Africa, Kenya and Southern Rhodesia, European settlement was almost non-existent. In 1914, only ninety-six Europeans (including missionaries) lived in Rwanda. Thus, to govern these colonies, Europeans had to rely on collaborator groups to rule on their behalf at the local level. Sometimes, as in the case of Buganda, local rulers were given almost complete freedom of action. In Northern Nigeria, the Hausa (Fulani states) structures with a predominantly urban population, a developed bureaucracy, courts, fiscal system and educated elite were simply incorporated into the imperial structures.

At the beginning of the 19th century, as a result of the Fulani uprising under the leadership of Osman dan Fodio, power in most of the Hausa states passed to the Fulani family nobility. (Approx. Transl.)

Elsewhere the process was more difficult, and often nobles local residents were appointed paid "chiefs" to govern artificially created "tribes".

INTRODUCTION

“Africa itself will write its own history, glorious and honorable for the entire continent, from north to south,” said the unforgettable Patrice Lumumba shortly before he was assassinated in 1961. Indeed, now Africa, with its characteristic revolutionary enthusiasm, is reviving the most important historical traditions and restores cultural values. At the same time, she must constantly overcome the barriers that the colonialists erected and carefully guarded to isolate Africans from the truth. The legacy of imperialism penetrates deeply into various areas of life. Its ideological impact on the consciousness of the peoples of Tropical Africa was and remains no less important a factor than the economic and social backwardness, poverty, humiliation and dependence on foreign monopolies inherited from colonialism.

Now, however, the peoples of Africa are decisively breaking off the chains with which the colonialists bound them. In the 50s and early 60s, most of the peoples of Africa, who were under the yoke of imperialism, achieved political independence. This was an important milestone for the hard way their struggle against imperialism, for national sovereignty and social progress. Gradually they come to understand that their struggle is part of a world revolutionary process in which the main role belongs to the socialist community of states led by Soviet Union. The African peoples are making enormous efforts to strengthen their won political independence and repel the numerous machinations of the neo-imperialists. They face such complex tasks as deep social and economic transformation, democratic agrarian reforms, elimination of the predominance of foreign monopolies, creation of an independent national economy. However, at the current stage, the task of reviving the national culture, partially destroyed or humiliated by the colonial powers, and restoring the historical traditions and glorious deeds of the past in people's memory is no less urgent.

The study of the history of African peoples has received a new direction. To successfully fight against imperialism, one must not only know about the glorious exploits of the fighters against colonialism, but also imagine the remarkable history state entities pre-colonial period. Researchers have managed to almost everywhere strip away the flair of romance and mysticism that shrouded it, and now they are striving to identify the most important progressive and revolutionary traditions that are so important for the modern national liberation revolution. Progressive African historiography can only accomplish this difficult task with the support of Marxists and other forces around the world fighting against imperialism. They are united by a common desire to overthrow the yoke of imperialists and neo-colonialists, eliminate the discrimination they impose and, of course, refute the reactionary bourgeois theories of African history, which are an apology for colonialism.

What fabrications did the capitalists resort to to justify the robbery of the colonies! A common thread running through many printed works is the idea that before the arrival of the colonial masters, Africans were completely or almost completely deprived of the ability for social progress. This idea was developed in every possible way and was vigorously disseminated. Just 30 years ago, one colonial official called Africans “savages passed over by history.” There are countless statements that classify the peoples of Africa as “unhistorical” and even reduce them to the “level of wild animals.” The history of Africa was depicted as a constant ebb and flow of “waves of higher civilization” from outside, which to a certain extent contributed to the development of the African population, doomed to stagnation. European colonialists attributed to “dynamic, creative, cultural impulses coming from outside” a lasting rational influence, for “ancient African culture lacks the Faustian desire for eternal life, exploration and discovery inherent in Western civilization.”

In fact, the history of the peoples of sub-Saharan Africa was reduced to a system of alien cultural strata. To make things even more convincing, the imperialists were portrayed as “supreme cultural leaders.” Continuing the falsification of African history, apologists of colonialism assessed the ruthless colonial plunder of Africans as a blessing, especially beneficial for their culture and supposedly opened the way for them from stagnation to modern progress. It is quite obvious what political and social functions Such theories are designed to fulfill: they are designed to mask the true nature and extent of colonial oppression and thereby deprive the anti-colonial and national liberation movement of its anti-imperialist orientation.

Nowadays these lies about the historical development of Africa are not spread very often. Imperialist propaganda is forced - and not only in historiography and politics - to resort to more sophisticated and flexible forms. The growing power of actually existing socialism and the successes of the national liberation movement force it to put forward theories that correspond to the new tasks of neocolonialism to a greater extent than the colonial-apologetic and racist versions of the old model. However, the imperialists still set the tone. True, bourgeois historiography is subject to diverse processes of differentiation.

In some major works, for example, the monographs of R. Corneven, R. Oliver, J. Matthew, P. Duignen, L. A. Gunn, Fr. Ansprenger, and in many special works the history of Africa is considered from a more realistic point of view. Their authors in some cases achieved very important results in empirical studies and in the consideration of particular issues, but the assessment of historical sources, the formulation of the problem and - last but not least - the unscientific nature of the conclusions and classification of materials force us to classify these scientists as the ideologists of late capitalism. The theoretical positions they put forward are no less dangerous than the ideas of the apologists of imperialism. Suffice it to say that some of the latest works in history and sociology attempt to separate the struggle of the progressive forces of the national liberation movement for social progress from the world socialist system and the labor movement in highly developed capitalist countries.

Many historical works on narrow topics, for example, about the reasons for the backwardness of a particular country, about the formation of “elites,” serve to disguise neocolonialist expansion.

Marxists and other progressive elements fighting against imperialism, including in African nation-states, have declared war on these views. The sketch of the history of Tropical Africa from ancient times, which forms the content of this book, should objectively trace the historical and cultural development of the peoples of the continent south of the Sahara and reveal the inhumane exploitation of them by colonialism. This essentially refutes the basic tenets of pro-imperialist “science.”

In the Soviet Union after the October Revolution socialist revolution, and in the countries of the world socialist system after 1945 it began new period African Studies. Scientists in these countries, as well as Marxists and other progressive researchers around the world, and increasingly in African countries themselves, publish in last years serious work on ancient and new history Africa. This sparked a revolution in African studies, which had previously been almost entirely influenced by colonialism (especially the historiography of Tropical Africa from ancient times to the division of its territory by imperialist colonial powers). The monograph “The Peoples of Africa,” compiled by a team of authors under the leadership of D. A. Olderogge I. I. Potekhin (published in the GDR in 1961), laid the foundation for numerous serious studies of individual problems in Soviet African studies. Thanks to this work, the work of Soviet scientists on linguistics and African history gained international fame. E. Schick (Hungary), I. Hrbek (Czechoslovakia), M. Malovist (Poland) sought to fill with their works the well-known gaps in the presentation general history pre-colonial period of the peoples of Africa. It is also worth mentioning the works of the French historian and Marxist economist J. Suret-Canal on the history of West and Central Africa and the English publicist B. Davidson published in the GDR.

Despite the undeniable successes of African studies in the last 20 years, there is still no comprehensive general work on the history of the peoples of Africa, especially in certain periods before the colonial division of the continent by the imperialists. Many years of research prompted me to make it available to a wide circle of readers. the most important points historical development peoples south of the Sahara.

The problem of periodizing the general history of the peoples of Africa, including in our era, poses particular difficulties to this day. There is no consensus on this issue even among Marxist scholars. The correct approach to it requires that Africans should not be viewed as a passive object of foreign influences, but that, first of all, their internal laws should be taken into account. social development, correlated, of course, with the most important periods of world history and qualitative changes in individual socio-economic social formations. At the same time, it is necessary to keep in mind the dialectical unity of the stages of development of world history and the regional characteristics of African countries. It is on the basis of these general criteria that the book highlights periods of historical development of the peoples of Tropical Africa from ancient times to the imperialist division of Africa in the last third of the 19th century. For example, the 16th century, when Western European capitalism made economic and political preparations for conquests and thereby marked the beginning of a new era, was not only an important milestone in world history, but also was a turning point in the life of some peoples of Tropical Africa.

Analysis of the social and historical development of the population of so many regions and the identification of general patterns and trends in it are associated with well-known difficulties. They are compounded by the fact that sub-Saharan countries have achieved very different degrees of progress. In addition, the social development of many African peoples undoubtedly has specific characteristics. And yet, it can be said with confidence that this development did not occur outside the natural world-historical process of changing socio-economic formations. Irrefutable historical facts prove that the peoples of Africa, both those lagging behind and those ahead, strived and strive to follow the path of progress. This path is long and difficult, but, as the entire experience of history shows, it will ultimately lead to socialism also the peoples of Tropical Africa.

In conclusion, some preliminary remarks should be made regarding the sources and supporting materials available to the Africanist.

It will not be an exaggeration to say that in this area, only in the last ten years has virgin soil been lifted and the curtain that covered the “Black” continent has been somewhat pulled back. Colonialists considered archaeological finds to be merely an addition to the highly profitable mining of iron ores and minerals. The ruins of the legendary state of Monomotapa and the most valuable monuments of Benin's art were discovered either by accident or by expeditions operating without any coordination. After African states achieved independence, funding for Scientific research became more systematic and purposeful. The results of these studies are extremely important. Thus, thanks to the extremely interesting excavations of Kilwa (Tanzania), the city-states of East Africa appeared in a completely different light. The ruins of the capital of ancient Ghana, Kumbi-Sale (in the south of Mauritania) turned out to be silent witnesses of a long-vanished African civilization. Tens of thousands of beautiful rock paintings and frescoes have been found in the now waterless highlands of Central Sahara; These highly artistic works of realistic art convey valuable information about the advanced culture of Africa. Recent finds make it possible to clarify ideas about the ancient and ancient history of African peoples. Since now scientific institutions of young national states themselves organize archaeological expeditions to excavate the centers of ancient civilizations, we can expect that their work will enrich history with new data.

Many tribes and peoples of Tropical Africa to this day do not have a written language. Nevertheless, we know in general terms the individual stages of their history. At the courts of rulers and leaders there was an institute of storytellers, reminiscent of the medieval minnesingers. Lists of names of rulers, chronicles, heroic tales, epic poems that glorified the exploits and deeds of rulers have come down to us from mouth to mouth. Recently, most of them have been carefully collected and recorded by African scientists and their assistants. They now began to study the contents of these sources, and the limits of their use immediately became apparent. Fiction and truth are closely intertwined in them. The history of a particular tribe or people comes down to the activities of individual rulers. The chronology also leaves much to be desired. However, the Africanist can and should work on these oral traditions in order to transform them, through scientific analysis, into reliable sources of African historiography.

In general, it should be noted that there is a certain paucity of writing and sources for individual periods and regions. The history of some peoples can sometimes be fairly accurately recreated on the basis of both the reports of Arab travelers and the written evidence left by these peoples themselves, but when studying the past of other peoples one has to be content with a few pieces of information, sometimes even indirect. In addition, they usually deal unreasonably much with events in political life, while economic and social relations are reflected very poorly in them.

The first written evidence of Tropical Africa is contained in the reports of Egyptian military leaders. The following is information obtained by the Carthaginians, Greeks and Romans during their travels, military campaigns and trade expeditions. However, these data, which have come down from the period of antiquity, are very modest and random in nature.

Only Arab historians of the period corresponding to the European Middle Ages finally paid due attention to the regions south of the Sahara, which then became widely known thanks to numerous expeditions and travels, as well as. vibrant trade relations. The stories of Arab travelers, chroniclers, geographers and historians, and above all the descriptions of the travels of al-Masudi, al-Bakri, al-Idrisi, Ibn Batuta, Leo the African, contain valuable information. They were supplemented starting from the 16th century. the first in situ records were in the states of the western and central zones of Sudan (meaning the entire Sahel strip, which runs from west to east south of the Sahara and does not coincide with the territory of modern Sudan). Serious gaps in our knowledge were later eliminated by Muslim scholars of the major trading centers of the Songhai state - Timbuktu, Gao and Djenne - who wrote chronicles still in Arabic. Information about the history of the peoples of West Africa is contained both in records that were made in the Hausa city-states in Northern Nigeria, and in written documents from the initial period of the Fulani and Toucouleur states in the 18th and early 19th centuries, found and published only recently. Of these, only a small part is written in Arabic.

Several local chroniclers report on the life of the East African city-states. They wrote first in Arabic, later in Swahili, and used their own writing system, which dates back to Arabic writing.

We also draw the most ancient written data from the monuments of the kingdoms of Meroe and Aksum (see Chapter II). In the Middle Ages, their traditions were successfully continued in the chronicles and church historiography of Ethiopia.

At the turn of the 15th and 16th centuries, when Portuguese sailors discovered the route around Africa and founded numerous strongholds of colonization, the first detailed reports of Europeans appeared, stories about their travels and historical writings. From this initial period of colonial enterprise came colorful descriptions of life in Benin and other coastal areas of West Africa, in the ancient state of the Congo, and most of all in East and Central Africa. According to Barros, Barbosa, Barreto, Castañoso, Alcasova and Dapper, to their great surprise, they saw here highly developed states with large shopping centers, where life was in full swing. At first, the Portuguese still recorded their impressions quite objectively and busily. But when the dreams of the conquerors about fabulous riches encountered opposition from the population of Africa, their stories - and more and more - began to be equipped with slanderous fabrications.

In the 19th century The African continent has become a cherished goal of explorers, travelers and missionaries. From the pens of members of various expeditions, merchants and church envoys who directly or indirectly prepared capitalist conquests, many notes came out on the geology, geography, economy and climate of African countries (cf. Chapter V, 7). They also left us detailed historical and ethnographic sketches of the social development of some peoples of Africa. Although the authors of these works, for example the famous Heinrich Barth in the mid-19th century, could not hide the fact that they were acting on behalf or on the initiative of the colonialists, they often strived for truly scientific research and recognized historical and cultural achievements non-European peoples. However, their works were very soon forgotten in Europe, in the last third of the 19th century. the sub-Saharan region was labeled the "Dark" Continent and denied the capacity for historical progress. In accordance with this point of view, much cultural evidence and oral traditions of African peoples were denied or attributed to the influence of foreign cultural traders. In the end, the racist theories of the apologists of colonialism triumphed and began to slow down any scientific research, including the study of the history and social development of the peoples of Africa.

This further obliges all Marxist scientists, together with progressive African historians, to reconstruct and correctly evaluate, on the basis of fundamental research, the history of the peoples of Africa, falsified by apologists of imperialism and colonialism.

From the book History of Spain IX-XIII centuries [read] author

From the book History of Spain IX-XIII centuries [read] author Korsunsky Alexander Rafailovich

author Smirnov Alexander Sergeevich

Introduction The underdevelopment of the methodology of modern historical science in Ukraine as the basis for falsifications. “Ukrainian history” as an ideology for internal use. Concealment of historical sources and manipulation of facts. Obstacles to scientific dialogue between historians and

author Men Alexander

From the book History of Religion in 2 volumes [In Search of the Path, Truth and Life + The Path of Christianity] author Men Alexander

From the book History of Religion in 2 volumes [In Search of the Path, Truth and Life + The Path of Christianity] author Men Alexander

From the book New Chronology of Fomenko-Nosovsky in 15 minutes author Molot Stepan

1.1. Introduction This part outlines the concept New Chronology Fomenko-Nosovsky for those who have never heard of it, or heard something very briefly, or perhaps heard a lot, but did not catch the essence. On several pages in this part we will outline the most important things. For many of

author Macarius Metropolitan

From the book History of the Russian Church. Volume 1. History of Christianity in Russia before Equal-to-the-Apostles Prince Vladimir author Macarius Metropolitan

From the book by Enguerrand de Marigny. Advisor to Philip IV the Fair by Favier Jean

Introduction In the history of France in the 14th century. is a transition period. The feudal institutions that had existed until then, albeit in a completely unrecognizable guise, were gradually replaced by monarchical institutions. Thus, considering the mechanism of government

From the book Northern Palmyra. The first days of St. Petersburg author Marsden Christopher

From the book USA author Burova Irina Igorevna

Introduction The United States of America (USA) occupies almost half of the North American continent, but the exceptional role of this great country, which first stood out among all other territories of the New World, and then gradually turned into one of the world's leading

From the book In Search of the Lost World (Atlantis) author Andreeva Ekaterina Vladimirovna

Introduction In this book you will read the tale of the ancient Greek scientist Plato about Atlantis - the mighty kingdom of the Atlanteans, which flourished on a large island in the Atlantic Ocean and sank to the bottom nine and a half thousand years BC. In the history of mankind

Ok, 4 million years ago - 1 million years ago

In Africa, Australopithecus (Australopithecus) - anthropoid primates - appears - remains in Ethiopia, Olduvai (Northern Tanzania in East Africa), near Lake. Chad, in Ubaidiya, Kenya

2 million years ago - 800 thousand years ago

Olduvai era of the ancient Stone Age (Paleolithic).

OK. 1.7 million years ago

The appearance of the “handy man” - remains in Olduvai (Northern Tanzania)

1.2 million years ago

The appearance of Pithecanthropus - remains in Olduvai (Tanzania), Ternifin, Sidi Abdurrahman (North Africa)

OK. 800-60 thousand years ago

Acheulean era of the ancient stone age - improvement of stone tool processing techniques

OK. 100-40 thousand years ago

Paleolithic Sango culture in Central Africa

OK. 60-30 thousand years ago

Middle Paleolithic - Ater culture in North Africa. Neanderthal man in Africa

39 thousand years ago - 14th thousand BC

The oldest Upper Paleolithic culture in Africa is Dabba (Cyrenaica)

OK. 35 thousand years ago

Formation of a modern person

OK. 13th millennium - 10th millennium BC

Oran (Ibero-Moorish) culture of the late Upper Paleolithic in North Africa

10th millennium - 2nd millennium BC

Capsian culture in North Africa (Mesolithic - Middle Stone Age)

6th millennium BC

The emergence of ceramics and domesticated animals. Beginning of the Neolithic in North Africa

5th millennium BC

Cattle breeding and agriculture in Egypt, Sahara, Sudan

First half of the 4th millennium BC

The beginning of the decomposition of tribal relations in Egypt. First predynastic period. Irrigated agriculture in the Nile Valley

XXXI-XXIX centuries BC.

Early Kingdom (1st-11th Dynasties)

OK. 3000 BC

Pharaoh Menes unites Upper and Lower Egypt, founds the capital in Memphis and the 1st dynasty

XXVIII century BC.

III dynasty. Construction of the first pyramid of Pharaoh Djoser in Giza

XXVII centuries BC.

IV dynasty. Construction of the largest pyramids of the pharaohs Khufu (Cheops), Khafre (Khefre) and Menkaure (Mykerin)

Mid-XXIII-mid-XXI century. BC.

Transitional period (VII-X dynasties).

The collapse of Egypt into separate nomes and the struggle of Heracleopolis and Thebes for hegemony

Mid-21st century XVIII century BC.

Middle Kingdom (XI-XIII Dynasties)

XXI century BC.

Unification of Egypt by the founder of the 11th Dynasty, Pharaoh Mentuhotep

XX-XVIII centuries BC.

The reign of the XII Dynasty, founded by Pharaoh Amenemhet. Rise of Egypt under Senusret III and Amenemhet III

End of the 18th century - 17th century BC.

I Transition period. Popular uprisings and the conquest of Egypt by the Hyksos. XV-XVI (Hyksos dynasties)

1680-1580 BC.

XVII dynasty in Egypt.

OK. 1580 BC

Expulsion of the Hyksos by Pharaoh Thmose I, founder of the 18th Dynasty

1580-1070 BC.

New Kingdom (XVIII-XX dynasties)

1580 - MIDDLE XIV CENTURY B.C.

XVIII dynasty in Egypt 1450s. BC.

Conquests of Pharaoh Thutmose III in Nubia, Syria and Palestine

1372-1354 BC.

Reign of Pharaoh Akhenaten (Amenhotep IV)

354-1345 BC.

Reign of Pharaoh Tutankhaten (Tutankhamun)

Mid-XIV century - end of XIII century. BC.

Reign of the 19th Dynasty

301-1235 BC.

Reign of Pharaoh Ramesses II. The heyday of the Egyptian state and culture. Hiking in Vostochnoye

Mediterranean. Creation of the Egyptian Empire

235-1215 BC.

Reign of Pharaoh Merneptah. Exodus of Jews from Egypt

XIII C.-BEGINNING XII century BC

Invasion of Egypt by the Libyans of the “Sea Peoples” (Aegean)

III-XIII centuries BC.

Formation of state entities in Libya

198-1166 BC.

Reign of Pharaoh Ramesses III (XX Dynasty)

XII century BC

Liberation of Phenicia from Egyptian rule

II century BC.

Phoenicians founded trading colonies in North Africa

XI CENTURY B.C. - MID X CENTURY. BC.

Transitional period (XXI dynasty). The disintegration of Egypt into Lower and Upper. Capture of the Nile Delta by the Libyans

2nd THOUSAND BC.

State of Kush in Nubia with its capital in Napata (modern Sudan)

1050-950 BC.

Later Kingdom (Libyan-Sai and Persian period)

OK. 950-730 BC.

XXII-XXIII (Libyan) dynasties

OK. 950-930 BC.

Reign of Pharaoh Shoshenq I (Susakim). Shoshenq's campaign in Judea, capture and plunder of Jerusalem

Mid-9th century BC.

The disintegration of Egypt into fiefs

825 or 814 BC

Founding of Carthage by Phoenicians, immigrants from Tire

715 BC

Conquest of Egypt by the Ethiopians

715-664 BC.

Unification of Egypt and Kush into one state

674 and 671 BC.

The campaigns of the Assyrian king Esarhaddon in Egypt, the conquest of Egypt by the Assyrians

667-665 BC.

Liberation of Egypt

663-525 BC.

XXVI (Sais) dynasty, founded by Pharaoh Psammetichus I. Renaissance of Egypt

610-595 BC.

Reign of Pharaoh Necho II. Construction of a canal connecting the Mediterranean and Red Seas

OK. 600 BC

Expedition of Phoenician sailors around Africa

525 BC

Conquest of Egypt by the Persians. XXVII (Persian) dynasty, founded by the Persian king Cambyses

525-404 BC.

Revolt against Persian rule

Liberation of Egypt from Persian rule

404-341 BC.

XXVI11-XXX dynasties in Egypt, founded by local leaders

OK. 400 BC

The beginning of the migration from west to east and south of Bantu tribes with metallurgical skills

343 BC

Secondary conquest of Egypt by the Persians, foundation of the XXXI (Persian) dynasty

332 BC

Conquest of Egypt by Alexander the Great. Founding of Alexandria

305-283 BC.

Rule of Ptolemy I in Egypt. Formation of the Ptolemaic Empire!*

Con. IV.- beginning Ill in. BC.

Transfer of the capital of Ethiopia from Napata to Meroe. State of Meroe

III century BC.

The emergence of state formations in Numidia and Mauretania

274-217 BC.

Wars between Egypt and the Persian Seleucid power for control of Palestine

264-241 BC.

IPunic War of Rome and Carthage

256-250 BC.

The Roman invasion of North Africa and their defeat by the Carthaginians

218-201 BC.

I Punic War of Rome and Carthage

202 BC

Roman commander Scipio Africanus defeats the Carthaginian commander Hannibal at the Battle of Zama, end of the Second Punic War

149-146 BC.

IIIPunic War

146 BC

Capture and destruction of Carthage by the Romans. Formation of the Roman province of Africa

111-105 BC.

The Jugurthine War between Rome and Numidia, which ended with the defeat of the Numidians and the dismemberment of Numidia

OK. 100 BC

Formation of the Kingdom of Aksum (in the territory of modern Eritrea and Ethiopia)

48 BC

The flight of the Roman commander and politician Pompey to Egypt after its defeat by Julius Caesar. Assassination of Pompey by order of Ptolemy XIII. Caesar in Egypt. Exile of Cleopatra VII to Syria

32 BC

The breakup of Gaius Julius Caesar Octavian with Mark Antony. Rome's war against Egypt, where Antony and Cleopatra VII were in power

31 BC

The defeat of Antony's fleet at Cape Actium, the flight of Antony and Cleopatra to Alexandria

30 BC

Suicide of Antony and Cleopatra. Egypt becomes a Roman province

OK. 25 BC

Kushites from Meroe invade Egypt, Napata is captured and sacked by the Romans

Capture of Mauretania (modern Algeria and eastern regions of Morocco) by the Roman Emperor Caligula

Decline of the Kingdom of Meroe

Unrest in North Africa and Egypt against Roman rule

Missionaries from Egypt convert King Ezan of Aksum to Christianity

Ezan conquers the kingdom of Meroe

St. Augustine Aurelius (354-430) - theologian, Church Father, bishop of Hippo (North Africa)

Sea Peoples from Indonesia begin resettlement in Madagascar

The Vandal invasion of North Africa, their capture of Carthage and the formation of the Vandal Kingdom

533-534 Byzantine armies under the command of the commander Belisarius conquer northern Africa from the Vandals

VII/VIII-XVI centuries.

State of Aloa (in the southern part of modern Sudan)

Conquest of Egypt by Sasanian king Khosrow II

Byzantine Emperor Heraclius I restores Byzantine power over Egypt

Arab conquest of Egypt

Arab invasion of Tunisia

Arab troops destroy the Byzantine city of Carthage. Arab conquest of North Africa

The Berber uprising against the Umayyads (Arab caliphs) and their creation of an independent state in the north of the Sahara

Aghlabid state in Tunisia and Algeria

The kingdom of Kanem is formed on the western shore of Lake Chad

Tulunid Dynasty in Egypt

Ikshidid Dynasty in Egypt

I Fatimid Caliphate in the Maghreb (Tunisia, Algeria)

Conquest of Egypt by the Fatimids

Almoravid rule in the Maghreb

Reign of the Barbary Almohad dynasty in northwest Africa

Overthrow of the Almoravids by the Almohads

The Ayyubid dynasty in Egypt, founded by the famous Turkic Sultan Salah ad-Din

The legendary state of Kitara in Central Africa

Capture of the Damietta fortress in the Nile Delta by the Crusaders during the 5th Crusade

7th crusade led by King Louis IX, defeat of the Crusaders by the Egyptians, capture of the king

In Egypt, the Mamluks (slave guards) seize power, the beginning of the dynasty of Mamluk sultans (until 1517)

8th Crusade. Death of Louis IX from fever in Tunisia. End of the Crusades

The state of Benin emerges on the west coast of Africa

Plague epidemic ("Black Death") in Egypt

Crusaders led by the King of Cyprus capture and plunder Alexandria, Egypt

The Kingdom of Songhai separates from the Empire of Mali

Portuguese expeditions to Africa to search for the "Country of Ophir"

The first batch of African slaves arrived in Lisbon

Portuguese sailors reach the Cape Verde Islands in West Africa

Wattasid Dynasty in Morocco

Songhai Empire conquers Timbuktu

The Spanish-Portuguese Treaty of Toledo gives Portugal exclusive rights in Africa

The ruler of the Congo converts to Christianity

Waskode Gama Expedition around Africa to India

Muslim conquest of the Christian state of Soba in Nubia

The Ottoman Turks under the leadership of Sultan Selim conquer Egypt, the end of the Mamluk dynasty

Beginning of the African slave trade in America

Ottoman Turks conquer Algeria

Saadian dynasty in Morocco

Portuguese expedition to the Zambezi River

Portuguese attempts to conquer the kingdom of Mwenemutapa

Morocco expands its territory to the south and west of the Sahara and conquers the city of Thuat

Portuguese victory over the Turks near the city of Mambasa in eastern Africa

The Moroccans invade Songhai, inflict a crushing defeat on the empire's military forces at the Battle of Tondibi, and destroy the city of Gao. End of the Songhai Empire

The Dutch seize two islands off the west coast of Africa that belonged to the Portuguese for the slave trade.

France annexes Madagascar

Huguenots, refugees from France, arrive in southern Africa

Completion of the French conquest of Senegal

The Dutch move east through the Hottentot Dutch Mountains

France takes the island of Mauritius from the Dutch

The Dutch begin importing slaves to the Cape Colony in southern Africa.

Mazrui, Governor of Mombasa, declares his independence from the Sultan of Oman

In West Africa, Ashanti warriors defeat Dagomba warriors.

Mohammed XVI becomes ruler of Morocco

The British recapture Senegal from the French

In South Africa, Dutch farmers move north and cross the Orange River

Declaration of Egyptian independence from the Ottoman Empire by Mamluk ruler Ali Bey

Restoration of Turkish rule over Egypt

The first "inspection" war in South Africa between the local Xhosa tribes and Dutch farmers (Boers)

Foundation of the British Society for the Prohibition of the African Slave Trade

Second "inspection" war between the Boers and Xhosa people over land in South Africa

Egyptian campaign of Napoleon Bonaparte

Turkish governor Muhammad Ali seizes power in Egypt

Prohibition of the slave trade throughout the British Empire

Boer rebellion in South Africa, suppressed by British troops

Prohibition of the slave trade in France

The beginning of the Mfecan Wars in southern Africa, associated with the expansion of the Zulu people

Annexation of Sierra Leone, Gold Coast (modern Ghana) and Gambia to British West Africa

The British war against the Ashanti people in West Africa

Expulsion of the French from Madagascar

The British leave Mombasa

French invasion of Algeria, occupation of the cities of Algiers and Oran

Mfecane Wars spread to northern Zimbabwe

The great migration of the Boers in South Africa to the north, caused by persecution by the British

Mfecane Wars Spread into Northern Zambia and Malawi

Turks overthrow local dynasty in Tripoli and establish direct rule

The Boers in Natal defeat the Zulu people

Anti-colonial Zulu revolt

Liberia becomes an independent republic

In Gabon, the French found the city of Libreville as a refuge for escaped slaves.

Boers create independent Transvaal Republic

British recognition of the Orange State created by the Boers

D. Livingston makes the first European expedition to cross Africa from east to west. Discovery of Victoria Falls

Transvaal becomes the Republic of South Africa with its capital Pretoria

The French found the city of Dakar in Senegal.

Conflict over the enclaves of Ceuta and Melil leads to the invasion of Morocco by Portuguese troops

Construction of the Suez Canal begins

The reign of Ismail Pasha in Egypt, the expansion of Egypt's autonomy, the implementation of reforms

Opening of the Suez Canal

Expedition to Central Africa of the American journalist Henry Stanley, his meeting with Livingston, who was considered missing

Zulu war against the British in South Africa

Boer revolt in the Transvaal against the British, proclamation of a republic

The journey of the Russian geographer V.V. Juncker, his description of the river basin. Uele and the identification of the part

Nile-Congo watershed

Conquest of Tunisia by the French

Liberation movement in Egypt under the leadership of Arab Pasha. Occupation of Egypt by England

Muhammad Ahmed declares himself the Mahdi (messiah) and starts a rebellion in Sudan.

French Colonial War in Madagascar

The beginning of German colonial conquests in Africa

Expulsion of Anglo-Egyptian troops from Sudan. Formation of the Mahdist government

"Ucciali" Italo-Ethiopian Treaty. Annexation by Italy of part of Somalia

The French defeat the Zulu people in West Africa

France captures Timbuktu and drives out the Tuaregs

French occupation of Madagascar

Italo-Ethiopian War. Peace Treaty in Addis Ababa Guaranteeing Ethiopian Independence

Anglo-French Convention on the Division of Colonial Possessions in Africa

Boer War

France seizes the main oases in the Sahara south of Morocco and Algeria

France and Italy enter into a secret agreement that gives France control

over Morocco, and Italy over Libya

French troops defeat the African leader Rabeh Zabeir in the Lake Chad region

End Anglo-Boer War. Loss of independence by the Boers

Suppression of the uprising of the Herero people in German South-West Africa, extreme cruelty of the reprisal

Congo annexed by Belgium

The French completed the conquest of Mauritania

Britain gives the Union of South Africa dominion status

Occupation of the Moroccan capital Fetz by French troops. German military pressure forces France to cede part of the Congo, for which the French receive freedom of action in Morocco

Britain bombards Dar es Salaam, the administrative center of German East Africa. Defeat of British troops at Tanga (in Tanganyika)

Britain declares a protectorate over Egypt

South African and Portuguese troops capture Dar es Salaam

German troops invade Portuguese East Africa

German troops invade Rhodesia

Britain receives Tanganyika from Germany and shares Cameroon and Togo with France

According to an international agreement, the sale of alcohol and weapons is limited in Africa

The French create a colony in Upper Volta (modern Burkina Faso)

Egypt becomes a self-governing monarchy

Slavery abolished in Ethiopia

International Convention assigns responsibility for the abolition of slavery to the League of Nations

The adoption by the English Parliament of the Statute of Westminster, which granted the dominions sovereign rights in the field of foreign and domestic policy. Transformation of the British Empire into the British Commonwealth of Nations

B. Mussolini proclaims the transformation of Libya into an Italian colony

Constitution in Egypt

Italian annexation of Ethiopia

Anglo-Egyptian Treaty of Alliance, maintaining British occupation forces in Egypt

New electoral law in the Union of South Africa that disenfranchises indigenous people

Declaration of war on Germany by the Union of South Africa

The British defeat Italian troops and capture Torbruk and Benghazi in Libya. German troops enter North Africa and besiege the British at Torbruk

British and American troops land in Morocco and Algeria. British offensive in Egypt

German troops capture Torbruk. British units, having won the Battle of El Alamein, stop the German offensive on Cairo

American troops join British forces in Tunisia. German surrender in North Africa

Establishment of the apartheid regime in the Union of South Africa

British troops occupy the Suez Canal zone

Libyan independence

The beginning of the revolution in Egypt

Formation of a national government in the British colony of the Gold Coast

The Mau Mau secret society organizes terrorist attacks against British settlers in Kenya

Eritrea becomes part of Ethiopia

Proclamation of the Egyptian Republic (under 1956 President Gamal Abdel Nasser)

Nigeria becomes a self-governing federation

Declaration of independence of the Republic of Sudan.

Nationalization of the Suez Canal. Egypt's reflection of the aggression of England, France and Israel caused by this act

Independence of Sudan and Morocco

Formation of the General Union of Workers of Black Africa

Declaration of independence of Ghana (unification of the former colonies of the Gold Coast and Togoland)

Independence of the Republic of Guinea

Independence of Algeria, creation of the FLN - united government

Niger, Upper Volta, Ivory Coast, Dahomey, Senegal, Mauritania, Congo and Gabon

receive limited independence from France

“Year of Africa” - liberation from colonial dependence of Eastern Cameroon, the Republic of the Congo, the Republic of Dahomey, the Republic of Ghana, the Republic of Niger, the Republic of Upper Volta,

Republic of Chad, Republic of Ivory Coast, Republic of Togo, Gabonese Republic,

Nigeria, the Republic of Mali, the Central African Republic, the Islamic Republic of Mauritania, the Republic of Somalia and the Republic of Madagascar.

Mutiny and Belgian occupation in the Congo, removal of Prime Minister P. Lumumba from office

(killed in 1961) and the transfer of power to dictator General J. Mobutu

Revolt of French settlers against Algerian independence plans

South African troops shoot protesters in Sharpeville

Military coup in Congo (Zaire). Renaming the Union of South Africa to the Republic of South Africa and its withdrawal from the British Commonwealth

Unification of Eastern and Southern Cameroon, formation of the Federal Republic of Cameroon 1961-1968.

Declaration of independence of Tanganyika, Uganda, Kenya and Zanzibar, Zambia, Botswana, Madagascar and Mauritius

End of the Algerian War. Algeria seeks independence

Proclamation of Nigeria as a federal republic

In South Africa, the leader of the African National Congress (ANC) N. Mandela was sentenced to life imprisonment

Establishment of the apartheid regime in Southern Rhodesia

Coup in Algeria, the rise to power in Algeria of H. Boumediene

Independence of the Republic of the Gambia

Establishment of a military dictatorship in Ghana. Military coup in Burkina Faso

Military coups and separatist insurgency in Nigeria

Bechuanaland becomes an independent state - Botswana

Basutoland becomes the independent state of Lesotho

Abolition of the monarchy in Uganda

The state of Biafra declares itself independent from Nigeria. Civil war begins

Military coup in Mali

Swaziland becomes an independent kingdom

Equatorial Guinea gains independence from Spain

Military coup in Somalia. The head of the regime, S. Barre, is heading towards building a Greater Somalia at the expense of the territories of neighboring states

Military coup in Sudan

Overthrow of the monarchy in Libya. Transfer of power in the country to the leader of the Revolutionary Command Council M. Gaddafi

Constitution in Morocco, restoration of parliament

Rhodesia becomes a republic

Military coup in Uganda. Sergeant Idi Amin - “the black Hitler of Africa” - comes to power

Egypt, Libya and Syria form the Federation of Arab Republics

Military coups in Ghana and Madagascar

Military coups in Burkina Faso and Niger

Revolution in Ethiopia, the deposition of the emperor and the proclamation of a republic. Start civil war

The third stage of decolonization of Africa. Declaration of independence of Angola, Guinea-Bissau, Mozambique, Cape Verde, Comoros, Sao Tome and Principe, Seychelles and Western Sahara, Zimbabwe

The beginning of the civil war in Angola, which took on the character of an international conflict

Military coup in Nigeria

Transformation of the Central African Republic into the Central African Empire. President J. Bokassa is crowned with the imperial crown

The head of Ethiopia, M. Haile Mariam, is heading towards building a Marxist-socialist economic model in the country

Proclamation of Libya as Jamahiriya

War between Ethiopia and Somalia over the Ogaden. Defeat of Somalia

Military coups in Mauritania and the Seychelles

Military coups in Guinea and the Seychelles

Nigeria's military hands over power to civilian government

London Accords establishing the multiracial state of Zimbabwe (formerly Rhodesia)

Military coups in Burkina Faso and Liberia

Libya occupies the Republic of Chad

Zonal coup in the Central African Empire. Restoration of the Republic

Assassination of President A. Sadat in Egypt; Hosni Mubarak becomes president

Military coup in Nigeria

Restoration of the presidential republic in Guinea

Establishment of a military dictatorship in Guinea

South African President P. Botha gives limited political rights to "people of Asian descent and coloured"

Military coups in Nigeria, Uganda and Sudan

The US and EU countries impose economic sanctions against South Africa

Military coup in Burkina Faso

Troops of the Republic of Chad, with the help of the French Foreign Legion, expel Libyans from the northern regions

Withdrawal of South African and Cuban troops from Angola

Ethnic conflict in Rwanda, which involves Uganda, Burundi, Zaire

The release of N. Mandela from prison in South Africa

The collapse of the regimes of M. Haile Mariam in Ethiopia and S. Barre in Somalia

Victory of Islamic fundamentalists in elections in Algeria. The government is eliminating the election results and is committed to accelerating market reforms

Adoption of international sanctions against Libya due to the participation of its citizens in terrorist acts

Military coup in Sierra Leone. Beginning of the Somali Civil War

Algerian President M. Boudiaf was killed by an Islamic extremist

Proclamation of independence of the province of Eritrea! from Ethiopia

The presidents of Burundi and Rwanda die in a plane crash. Tribal conflicts erupt in Rwanda and civil war begins

In Khartoum (Sudan), the terrorist “Carlos” was arrested and transported to France, where there should be a trial

In South Africa, the African National Congress wins the elections. N. Mandela becomes president.

Cameroon and Mozambique join the British Commonwealth

In Zaire, rebel forces led by L. Kabila force President J. Mobutu to leave the country and go into exile

Ghanaian diplomat Kofi Annan becomes UN Secretary General

Military conflict between Eritrea and Ethiopia

M. Gaddafi extradites Libyan terrorists to the international community. Easing international sanctions against Libya