Formation of psychology as an experimental science. The emergence of experimental science Experimental science

Formation of psychology as an experimental science

The transition from knowledge to science, which for a number of areas should be dated back to the 18th century, and for some (such as mechanics) even to the 17th century, in psychology takes place by the middle of the 19th century. Only by this time, diverse psychological knowledge is formalized into an independent science, armed with its own research methodology specific to its subject and having its own system, i.e. logic specific to its subject for constructing knowledge related to it.
The methodological prerequisites for the formation of psychology as a science were prepared mainly by those associated with empirical philosophy, movements that proclaimed, in relation to the knowledge of psychological, as well as all other, phenomena, the need for a turn from speculation to experimental knowledge, carried out in natural science in relation to knowledge physical phenomena. A particularly significant role was played in this regard by the materialist wing of the empirical trend in psychology, which connected mental processes with physiological ones.
However, in order for the transition of psychology from more or less well-founded knowledge and views to science to really take place, it was also necessary to develop appropriate scientific fields on which psychology should rely, and to develop appropriate research methods. These final prerequisites for the formation of psychological science were provided by the work of physiologists of the first half of the 19th century.
Relying on whole line most important discoveries in the field of physiology nervous system(C. Bell, who showed the presence of various sensory and motor nerves and established the basic laws of conduction in 1811, 22 I. Muller, E. Dubois-Reymond, G. Helmholtz, who measured the conduction of excitation along the nerve), physiologists created a number of capital works devoted to general patterns sensitivity and specifically the work of various sense organs (works of I. Müller and E. G. Weber, works of T. Jung, G. Helmholtz and E. Hering on vision, G. Helmholtz on hearing, etc.). Dedicated to the physiology of the sense organs, i.e. various types of sensitivity, these works, due to internal necessity, moved into the field of psychophysiology of sensations.
Particularly important for development experimental psychology acquired the research of E. G. Weber, devoted to the question of the relationship between the increase in irritation and sensation, which were then continued, generalized and subjected to mathematical processing by G. T. Fechner (see below). This work laid the foundations for a new special field of experimental psychophysical research.
The results of all these studies were combined, partly further developed and systematized psychologically in his “Fundamentals of Physiological Psychology” (1874) by W. Wundt. He collected and improved for the purpose psychological research methods developed initially by physiologists.
In 1861, W. Wundt invented the first elementary device specifically for the purposes of experimental psychological research. In 1879 he organized a laboratory of physiological psychology in Leipzig, in the late 80s. transformed into the Institute of Experimental Psychology. The first experimental works of Wundt and numerous students were devoted to the psychophysiology of sensations, the speed of simple motor reactions, expressive movements, etc. All these works were thus focused on elementary psychophysiological processes; they still belonged entirely to what Wundt himself called physiological psychology. But soon the experiment, the penetration of which into psychology began with elementary processes lying, as it were, in the border area between physiology and psychology, began step by step to be introduced into the study of central psychological problems. Experimental psychology laboratories began to be created in all countries of the world. E.B. Titchener pioneered experimental psychology in the USA, where it soon received significant development.
Experimental work began to quickly expand and deepen. Psychology has turned into an independent, largely experimental science, which, using ever more rigorous methods, began to establish new facts and reveal new patterns. In the few decades that have passed since then, the actual experimental material available to psychology has increased significantly; methods have become more diverse and accurate; The face of science has changed noticeably. The introduction of experiment into psychology not only armed it with very powerful special method scientific research, but also raised the question of the methodology of psychological research in general differently, putting forward new requirements and criteria for the scientific nature of all types of experimental research in psychology. That is why the introduction of the experimental method into psychology played such a large, perhaps even decisive role in the formation of psychology as an independent science.
Along with the penetration of the experimental method, a significant role in the development of psychology was played by the penetration of the principle of evolution into it.
Evolutionary theory modern biology, having spread to psychology, played a double role in it: firstly, it introduced a new, very fruitful point of view into the study of mental phenomena, connecting the study of the psyche and its development not only with physiological mechanisms, but also with the development of organisms in the process of adaptation to the environment . Back in the middle of the 19th century. G. Spencer builds his system of psychology based on the principle of biological adaptation. The study of psychic phenomena is subject to the principles of broad biological analysis. The mental functions themselves, in the light of this biological approach, begin to be understood as phenomena of adaptation, based on the role of the function they perform in the life of the organism. This biological point of view on mental phenomena subsequently became widespread. Turning into a general concept not limited to phylogeny, it soon reveals its Achilles heel, leading to the biologization of human psychology.
The evolutionary theory, which extended to psychology, led, secondly, to the development, first of all, of zoopsychology. At the end of the last century, thanks to a number of outstanding works (J. Loeb, K. Lloyd-Morgan, L. Hobhouse, G. Jennings, E. L. Thorndike and others), zoopsychology, freed from anthropomorphism, entered the path of objective scientific research. New trends emerge from research in the field of phylogenetic comparative psychology (animal psychology) general psychology and primarily behavioral psychology.<…>
The penetration of the principle of development into psychology could not but stimulate psychological research in terms of ontogenesis. In the second half of the 19th century. intensive development of this industry begins genetic psychology– child psychology. In 1877, Charles Darwin published his “Biographical Sketch of a Child.” Around the same time, similar works by I. Ten, E. Egger and others appeared. Soon, in 1882, these scientific diary essays devoted to observations of children were followed by the work of V. Preyer, “The Soul of a Child,” which continued them in a broader and more systematic manner. Preyer finds many followers in various countries. Interest in child psychology is becoming universal and taking on an international character. In many countries, special research institutes and special magazines dedicated to child psychology are published. A number of works on child psychology appear. Representatives of every major psychological school are beginning to pay considerable attention to it. All currents of psychological thought are reflected in the psychology of the child.
Along with the development of experimental psychology and the flourishing of various branches of genetic psychology, as a significant fact in the history of psychology, testifying to the significance of its scientific research, it is also necessary to note the development of various special areas of so-called applied psychology, which approach the resolution of various issues of life, based on the results of scientific, in particular experimental, research. Psychology finds wide application in the field of education and training, in medical practice, in litigation, economic life, military affairs, and art.<…>
Crisis of the methodological foundations of psychology
Formed as an independent science in the middle of the 19th century, psychology in its philosophical foundations was a science of the 18th century. Not G.T. Fechner and W. Wundt - eclectics and epigones in philosophy, but the great philosophers of the 17th-18th centuries. determined its methodological foundations. The formation of psychology as an experimental discipline by Wundt occurred already in the conditions of an emerging crisis of its philosophical foundations.
Therefore, that very widespread point of view must be fundamentally rejected, which turns the formation of experimental physiological psychology in Fechner and Wundt into the culminating point of the development of psychology, approaching which psychology kept going up and starting from which, moving into a state of crisis, it began to steadily go down. . The introduction of the experimental method into psychology and the identification of psychology as a special experimental discipline is undoubtedly a significant stage in the development of psychological science. But the formation of a new psychological science cannot be concentrated into one point. This is a long, not yet completed process, in which three peak points should be identified: the first should be attributed to the same 18th century. or the turning point period from the 17th to the 18th centuries, which F. Engels singled out for the entire history of science, the second - by the time of the formation of experimental physiological psychology in the middle of the 19th century; the third - by the time when the system of psychology is finally formed, combining the perfection of research methods with a new, truly scientific methodology. The first stones of this new building were laid by K. Marx in his early works.
The development of psychology in the second period is characterized by the absence of large original systems in any way comparable to those created by the 18th century. or the beginning of the 19th century, the subordination of psychology to such constructs as the eclectic “inductive metaphysics” of W. Wundt, the pragmatic philosophy of W. James or the empirio-criticism of E. Mach and R. Avenarius, and the growing struggle from idealistic positions against spontaneous materialistic tendencies, sensualistic and mechanistic principles on which experimental physiological psychology was initially built; at the end of this period, this struggle leads psychology to an obvious crisis. Along with this, special experimental research is being further developed and research techniques are being improved.
Development experimental research almost everything dates back to this period. In the previous period, only the very birth of psychophysics and psychophysiology, or physiological psychology, took place. The development of experimental research that goes beyond the scope of psychophysiology, starting with the work of E. Ebbinghaus on memory (1885), the study of E. Muller on memory and attention, etc., dates mainly to the end of the 19th century. (80s and 90s). The development of zoopsychology dates back to the same time (the classic work of E.L. Thorndike was published in 1898). The particularly significant development of child psychology, beginning with the work of V. Preyer (1882), refers mainly to an even later time (the work of V. Stern “Psychology early childhood"in 1914, works by K. Groos, K. Bühler and others in subsequent years).
Physiological, experimental psychology, in its basic most progressive methodological principles and philosophical traditions, was, as we have seen, by the time of its formation still a science of the 18th century.<…>The struggle against the methodological principles on which the edifice of experimental psychology was originally erected began already at the turn of the 20th century. It goes along many lines, everywhere in this struggle the opposition of one opposite to another continues. The sensationalism of various interpretations that was initially dominant in physiological psychology is contrasted with rationalism (the psychology of “pure thinking” of the Würzburg school and A. Binet: Descartes again against Locke); to mechanistic atomism in psychology - associationism - the integrity of various types (holistic psychology of the Berlin school, Leipzig, etc.) and the principle of activity (“apperception”, “creative synthesis” in Leibniz versus Descartes); physiological naturalism (in psychophysiology) or biological (Darwin, Spencer) - various forms of spiritualistic “psychology of the spirit” and idealistic “ social psychology"(French sociological school in psychology). Further, new contradictions arise: intellectualism - sensualistic and rationalistic - begins to be opposed to various forms of irrationalism; the mind that was deified by the French Revolution of the 18th century - dark deep drives and instincts. Finally, a struggle begins from different sides against the best progressive moments of the Cartesian concept of consciousness with its clear and distinct knowledge; against him, on the one hand, the diffuse feeling-like experience of the psychology of the Leipzig school is put forward (K. Boehme and the German mystics against Descartes); against it, on the other hand, are various varieties of psychology of the unconscious (psychoanalysis, etc.). Against it, finally, bringing the crisis to its extreme limits, comes behavioral psychology, which rejects not only the specific concept of consciousness, but also the psyche as a whole: “Man-Machine” by J. O. La Mettrie tries to overcome all the contradictions of the human spirit, completely abolishing it ( reflex versus consciousness, Descartes versus Descartes).
This struggle in its main tendencies is an ideological struggle, but the reference points for the specific forms that it takes in the practice of psychological research are provided by the contradictions between specific factual material, which reveals the progressive course of scientific psychological research, and the methodological foundations from which psychology proceeded .
The struggle in all these areas, starting at the turn of the 20th century, continues in foreign psychology to this day. But in different periods, different motives are dominant. Here we have to distinguish, first of all, the period before 1918 (before the end of the First World War and the victory of the Great socialist revolution in Russia) and the subsequent period. In the second of these periods, psychology enters a period open crisis; the first time he prepares. Already in the first of these periods, many of the trends that would become dominant in the subsequent period began to take shape - the irrationalistic intuitionism of A. Bergson, and the psychoanalysis of S. Freud, and the psychology of the spirit of V. Dilthey, etc., but characteristic of of this period are mainly the directions leading the struggle against sensationalism and partly the mechanistic atomism of associative psychology, which was at first the dominant direction of psychology (G. Spencer, A. Ben - in England, I. Tan, T. A. Ribot - in France , E. Muller, T. Ziegen - in Germany, M. M. Troitsky - in Russia). During this period, the tendency of rationalistic idealism was still dominant. In the subsequent period, in post-war years, which also become years of acute crisis for psychology, irrationalistic and mystical tendencies are increasingly becoming dominant.
Antisensualistic tendencies are identified first in connection with the formulation of the problem of thinking in psychology - in the most subtle form by A. Binet in France, by D. E. Moore and E. Aveling in England, in the most pointedly idealistic form in Germany, by representatives of the Würzburg school, being under the direct influence of the idealistic philosophy of E. Husserl, resurrecting Platonic idealism and “realism” of scholastic philosophy. The Würzburg school builds the psychology of thinking on the basis of “experimental introspection.” Its main goal is to show that thinking is fundamentally a purely spiritual act, irreducible to sensations and independent of sensory-visual images; its core is “intention” (direction) towards an ideal object, its main content is the direct “grasp” of relationships. Thus, the Würzburgers revive, within the framework of “experimental psychology,” the ideas of rationalistic philosophy, just as their opponents implement the principles of the philosophy of empiricism. Moreover, both directions, with all their antagonism, are united by a common metaphysical approach to the question of the relationship between thinking and sensation. Sensualistic psychology takes the position of vulgar metaphysical empiricism, for which there is no transition from sensation to thinking. Thus, one has to either completely deny the qualitative specificity of thinking, reducing thinking to sensations, or consider thinking in isolation from sensations. The formulation of the problem of thinking in terms of psychological research must inevitably, on this basis, lead to a rationalistic opposition of thinking to sensation, and in general to sensory clarity.
Following the struggle against the sensualistic principle, a struggle begins against the mechanistic-atomistic principle of associative psychology, against the “psychology of elements” and its tendency, inspired by the ideals of mechanistic natural science, to decompose all complex formations of consciousness into elements and consider them as the result of the cohesion and association of these elements. W. Wundt also tries to take into account the qualitative uniqueness of the whole in relation to the elements, introducing the concept of apperception and creative synthesis, which they contrast with simple external association. Experimental facts forced Wundt to this innovation. Thus, already the first psychological works on auditory sensations, namely the studies of K. Stumpf (1883), showed that tones, merging, and not just externally associating, form diverse integral structures that act as new specific qualities, irreducible to the qualities of their constituents. elements. Then X. Ehrenfels (1890) showed this in visual perceptions and for the first time introduced the term “Gestaltqualitat” to designate this specific new quality of the whole. Subsequent studies on the perception of musical tones and a number of other studies revealed extensive factual material that did not fit into the framework of the psychology of elements and forced us to go beyond its limits.
At first, this going beyond the mechanistic psychology of elements is accomplished primarily by contrasting the mechanism of associations with various forms of “creative synthesis” as manifestations of spiritual activity (), “transitional states of consciousness” (James), etc. In the subsequent post-war period of crisis, the same question about integral formations, irreducible to the sum of elements, is resolved based on significantly different positions of structural formalism (Gestalt psychology) and irrationalistic completeness (Leipzig school).
The struggle against associations as the main explanatory principle of experimental psychology finds expression in another very symptomatic tendency - the tendency to completely abandon the explanation of more complex meaningful (“spiritual”) mental phenomena and limit oneself to a description of the forms in which these spiritual phenomena are given (“descriptive psychology”) "V. Dilthey). But these trends (which were outlined by Wundt, who contrasted physiological psychology with the historical psychology of peoples, studying higher spiritual formations - speech, thinking, etc.) came to the fore in the subsequent post-war years - during the period of crisis.
In the years following the end of the First World War, the crisis took on acute forms. Just like the crisis in physics, which V.I. Lenin wrote about in “Materialism and Empirio-Criticism,” in mathematics, etc., this is a crisis associated with the ideological struggle for the methodological foundations of science. The methodological foundations on which the edifice of experimental psychology was originally erected are crumbling; Refusal not only from experiment, but also from the tasks of scientific explanation in general (“understanding psychology” by E. Spranger) is becoming increasingly widespread in psychology; Psychology is being overwhelmed by a wave of vitalism, mysticism, and irrationalism. Instinct coming from the depths of the body (A. Bergson), “horme” (in W. McDougall) replaces the intellect. The center of gravity is transferred from the highest historically established forms of consciousness to its prehistoric, primitive, “deep” foundations, from consciousness to the unconscious, instinctive. Consciousness is relegated to the role of a camouflage mechanism, devoid of real influence on behavior controlled by unconscious drives (). Along with this, mechanism takes extreme forms, coming to a complete denial of the human psyche and consciousness; human activity comes down to a set of unconscious reflex reactions (behavioral psychology). In the psychology of peoples and in the doctrine of personality, in characterology, reactionary racial fatalistic theories become dominant in foreign bourgeois psychology (E. Kretschmer, E. Jensch); Pedology is widespread in child psychology, and testology in pedagogical and applied psychology in general.<…>

Her date of birth is 1662, the year the Royal Society of Naturalists of London was founded. The purpose of its creation: “to improve the knowledge of natural subjects, all useful arts, through experiment (without interfering with theology, metaphysics, morals, politics, grammar, rhetoric or logic).

1666 - The Academy of Sciences appeared in Paris.

The origins of modern European science are associated with the names of Fr. Bacon, Harvey, Kepler, Galileo, Descartes, Pascal, Newton, Locke, Leibniz, etc.

The first natural science theory was mechanics, created through the efforts of Galileo and Newton.

The theorization of natural science and its transition to science itself were associated with the process of the formation of experiment as a method of studying nature, with the emergence and formation of experimental science. The idea of ​​experiential knowledge has been put forward since the 13th century. His supporters were Roger Bacon (13th century), Ockham (14th century).

R. Bacon recognized 2 main types of knowledge: through logical evidence and through experience, he also demanded a transition to experimental knowledge. The results of knowledge, he believed, should be confirmed by experience. Nothing can be known without experience. Bacon noted: “The conclusion must be verified by experience and application. There are cases when experience teaches better than any syllogism. Above all speculative knowledge is the ability to carry out experiments, and this science is the queen of sciences.” But the same R. Bacon substantiated the idea of ​​mathematization of knowledge, he declared mathematics the foundation of all sciences and declared: how important it is! how useful! In turn, Ockham believed that in science only concepts that have been tested in experience should be used. He valued experiential knowledge above abstract knowledge.

A century and a half after Roger Bacon, the herald of the ideas of mathematization of knowledge was Leonardo da Vinci in the 15th century. Leonardo noted that there is no certainty in sciences where none of the mathematical sciences can be applied, and in knowledge that has no connection with mathematics. But the idea of ​​experimental research could only be realized in modern times, when European culture developed a new idea about man, his purpose and interaction with nature. The worldview of this time affirmed the view of man as an active being, called upon to transform nature in his own interests; nature, in turn, began to be viewed as a sphere of application of human forces. This understanding of man and his relationship to nature was a necessary prerequisite for the emergence of the experimental method.

The experimental method is based on the recognition of man as an active principle, opposing nature and changing it by exerting a forceful influence on it. In the experimental method, the cognizing subject places natural objects in artificially created conditions, manipulates them at will and subjects nature to changes and pressure.

In order for experimental classical science to arise, it had to be formed a new type of thinking, different from medieval (first premise). Its main features:

1) Naturalism – the idea of ​​self-sufficiency of nature with its inherent objective laws.

For this, the following prerequisites took shape during the Renaissance:

- pantheism –(theo – God, pan – everything). God is dissolved in nature, i.e. nature is of the same order to God. Spinoza was a pantheistic philosopher.

- deism. Newton believed that the first causes are studied by metaphysics (philosophy and religion), and the world by physics.

- development of medicine and anatomy, which revealed the evolutionary homogeneity of man with other living beings, his unity with nature.

2) Combinatoriality, mechanism. Every element in the world was represented not as some qualitative whole, but as an element within a more common system(nature). The world is a machine, man is an automaton. Newton - author mechanical system peace.

3) Measurability, the ability to quantify a subject through comparison with quantitative parameters.

4) Determinism, cause-and-effect dependence . There are no symbols in the world, but there are reasons. There are long and varied cause-and-effect relationships (Laplace). Accidents and uncertainties are excluded

5) Analyticism , everything is analyzed and decomposed into components (Newtonian mechanics).

6) Geometricism of the world – the doctrine of homogeneous and isotropic space, all points of which and directions are equivalent (right - left, top - bottom, etc.). Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo, the idea of ​​heliocentrism.

7) Fundamentalism . Knowledge is based on fundamental assumptions from which less general units of knowledge are derived. Newton - mathematical principles of natural philosophy.

8) Absolutism - search for absolute truths.

9) Objectivism – detachment of the subject from the processes of obtaining knowledge.

9) Cumulativeism – self-expansion of knowledge through new truths.

Copernicus (1473-1543), "On Conversion celestial spheres" - the heliocentric system, according to which the Earth is an ordinary planet. Ontologically, Earth and Heaven are equal.

German astronomer Kepler (1571-1630), he came up with the idea of ​​​​the mutual influence of celestial bodies. Kepler introduced the concept of “inertia” to refer to the “laziness” of the planets. In the famous “Harmony of the World” (1619), he substantiated the mathematical relationship between the time of revolution of the planets around the Sun and their distance from it (Kepler’s 3rd law). 1st law - planets move not in circular, but in elliptical orbits. 2nd law – disequilibrium is established in the movement of the planets.

II prerequisite for the formation of classical science - abstract knowledge (theoretical activity) and concrete skill (knowledge obtained in experimental activity) had to be combined. It took humanity 14 centuries to achieve this. In philosophy, this corresponded to the emergence of two directions that formed the ideals of experimental and mathematical knowledge.

The advantages of the two components of science (theory and practice) are discussed in two directions in philosophy:

1). Empiricism – Francis Bacon (1561 – 1626).

His “On the Dignity and Augmentation of the Sciences”: to understand nature one must carry out well-organized experiments. We obtain a large number of experimental data, and from them we move inductively to theoretical laws. But there are reasons for human delusions, idols that cloud the consciousness:

Idols of the race - man has false ideas that distort experience, for example, he anthropomorphizes nature.

Cave Idols - Difficulty inner world a person can distort his views about objects.

Market idols are a misnomer.

The idols of the theater are uncritical borrowings from other doctrines, the influence of the authority of someone more experienced.

Bacon created a doctrine of methods in the “New Organon, or true instructions for the interpretation of nature.” The main method is induction. Scientist - bee. Francis Bacon played a major role in the development and justification of the experimental method, but he underestimated the importance of mathematics for scientific research.

2). Rationalism Descartes (1596-1650).

The source of truth is reason. The basis of thinking is the principle of evidence. In “Rules for Guiding the Mind,” the beginning of knowledge is intuition, and the method of deducing knowledge is deduction. Deduction - from obvious things we reach experimentally confirmed phenomena. “I think - I exist.”

Unlike Bacon, the French thinker Descartes underestimated the experimental method, but made an invaluable contribution to the mathematization of natural science. Descartes proclaimed mathematics as the ideal of all science and contributed to its introduction into the science of his time.

III prerequisite for the formation of classical science is at confirmation of the hypothetico-deductive methodology of knowledge. From conditionally accepted hypotheses, statements are logically deduced, which are then experimentally confirmed. This science research method introduced by Galileo. He laid the foundations of experimental science. Galileo is the founder of the experimental method. At the same time, he embarked on the path of active use of mathematical means and thus combined the experimental method with the mathematical method, which was of great importance for the development scientific knowledge. Galileo proposed a special research tactic that focuses on the study not of empirical movement, but of ideal theoretical movement described using mathematics:

* first, by logical deduction, obtain the laws of motion in their pure form;

* then experimentally justify the obtained abstract laws of motion.

In Discourses and Mathematical Proofs, Galileo analyzes the isochronism of pendulum swings. Pendulums of different weights but the same length oscillate for the same duration. The movement of a pendulum is reduced to the fall of a body along an arc of a circle. It follows that gravity accelerates different falling bodies equally. Therefore, if we ignore the resistance of the medium, all bodies in free fall should have the same speed. Galileo proposed a mathematical abstraction of the rectilinear uniform motion, which is infinite. (See Aristotle: no movement can continue indefinitely).

A follower of Galileo is Isaac Newton (1642-1727). Author of "Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy" (1687). Since 1660, Newton had been studying alchemy and came to the conclusion that mechanical principles were insufficient to construct a comprehensive picture of nature. Newton, like Galileo, used mathematical images of physical objects. The law of universal gravitation is not an experimental postulate (there were no sufficient experimental foundations), it is a necessary part of the physical and mathematical model of the world.

5. Formation of science as professional activity. The emergence of disciplinary-organized science and the formation of technical sciences.

For a long time, scientific activity did not have the status of a profession and was a free activity. Scientists did science on their own, as their own personal endeavor. Their research was not subject to payment and was not financed by anyone. The material source of their existence was payment for teaching work at the university where they worked, as well as other income, for example, tutoring. It is true that in France scientists have been paid a fee since the time of the Great French Revolution. And in Russia, fees for scientific activities were established for members of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences after its establishment. Meanwhile, ensuring the lives of scientists through their pursuit of science is the most important characteristic scientific activity as a profession.

Scientific activity began to acquire the status of a special profession only at the end of the 19th century, when its social significance and economic benefits began to be realized and recognized. But only in the 20th century did the concept of a scientist appear, which certifies the inclusion of scientific activity in a number of generally recognized and eligible professions. At the same time, the profession of a scientist began to quickly turn into a mass one, as evidenced by the rapid growth in the number of scientists. So in the middle of the last century, their annual increase reached 7%. As a result, if at the beginning of the 20th century there were 100 thousand scientists in the world, by the end there were more than 5 million.

At the first stages of its development, science was syncretic in nature, i.e. represented undivided, fused knowledge. There were no clear boundaries between its various areas, but as knowledge deepens and accumulates, a process of demarcation and separation occurs. And science moves on to its disciplinary organization. This process took place especially actively in the first half of the 19th century, when a number of branches of knowledge turned into independent sciences.

A system of disciplines has emerged, each of which has its own internal differentiation and its own internal foundations. Nowadays, science includes about 15 thousand disciplines, with their characteristic picture of reality and research ideals and norms. The transition to the disciplinary organization of science, to the specialization of cognitive activity by industry was a sign of the development of science, the achievement of its theoretical maturity. This transition to the disciplinary organization of science served as an important stimulus for its further development.

Technical sciences were formed in a special way, for technical sciences characteristically, they are associated with a layer of intermediate knowledge between the natural sciences and production. This determined the specifics of their emergence: for the development of technical sciences, on the one hand, a certain level of natural science was necessary, and, on the other hand, the corresponding demands of production. Such conditions arose and developed by the middle of the 15th century. From this time on, the process of formation of technical sciences began, which continued until the 19th century.

In the last third of the 16th - early 17th centuries. A bourgeois revolution takes place in the Netherlands, which played an important role in the development of capitalist relations in Protestant countries. From the middle of the 17th century. (1642-1688) the bourgeois revolution unfolds in England, the most industrially developed European country. These early bourgeois revolutions were prepared by the development of manufacturing, which replaced craft labor. The transition to manufacture contributed to the rapid growth of labor productivity, since manufacture was based on the cooperation of workers, each of whom performed a separate function in the production process, divided into small partial operations.

The development of a new - bourgeois - society gives rise to changes not only in economics, politics and social relations, it also changes people’s consciousness. The most important factor in such a change in public consciousness is science, and above all experimental and mathematical natural science, which precisely in the 17th century. is going through a period of its formation: it is no coincidence that the 17th century is usually called the era of the scientific revolution.

In the 17th century The division of labor in production creates a need for rationalization of production processes, and thereby the development of science that could stimulate this rationalization.

The development of modern science, as well as social transformation, associated with the decomposition of feudal social orders and the weakening of the influence of the church, gave rise to a new orientation of philosophy. If in the Middle Ages it acted in alliance with theology, and in the Renaissance - with art and humanitarian knowledge, now it relies mainly on science.

The beginning of the modern stage of development of science was laid by the great founders of experimental and theoretical natural science, who usually include Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo and Newton. Justification by the Polish astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus, who was a canon of the cathedral in Fraenburg, of the heliocentric model solar system called the Copernican revolution in worldview. The German Johannes Kepler gave this revolution a rigorous mathematical form, giving the world the equations for the elliptical motion of the planets around the sun. And already in the next, seventeenth century, the Italian Galileo Galilei developed experimental natural science and created the first measuring instruments. The Englishman Isaac Newton summarized the results of his predecessors in the famous laws of the same name, being at the same time a great theorist and a remarkable experimenter. This was the apotheosis of Promethean insight, awareness of the unlimited possibilities of the mind, which had burst into a wide space of scientific research.

To understand the problems that faced the philosophy of the 17th century, it is necessary to take into account, firstly, the specifics of a new type of science - experimental-mathematical natural science, the foundations of which were laid in this period. And secondly, since science occupies a leading place in the worldview of this era, then in philosophy the problems of the theory of knowledge - epistemology - come to the fore.

Ancient and medieval physics, the foundations of which were laid by Aristotle, was not a mathematical science: it relied, on the one hand, on metaphysics, and on the other, on logic. One of the reasons why, when studying natural phenomena scientists did not rely on mathematics, there was a belief that mathematics cannot study the movement that makes up main characteristic natural processes. In the 17th century Through the efforts of J. Kepler, G. Galileo and his students - B. Cavalieri and E. Torricelli - a new mathematical method of infinitesimals was developed, which later received the name differential calculus. This method introduces the principle of motion into mathematics itself, making it a suitable means for studying physical processes.

One of the philosophical prerequisites for the creation of the infinitesimal method was the teaching of Nicholas of Cusa about the coincidence of opposites, which influenced Galileo and his students.

There remained, however, one more problem that had to be solved in order for mechanics to become possible. According to the ancient and medieval view, mathematics deals with ideal objects, which are not found in nature in their pure form; on the contrary, physics studies real, natural objects themselves, and therefore strictly quantitative methods of mathematics are unacceptable in physics. One of those who took up the solution to this problem was, again, Galileo. The Italian scientist came to the idea that real physical objects can be studied using mathematics if it is possible to construct ideal models of these physical objects based on experiment. Thus, while studying the law of falling bodies, Galileo constructed an experiment, introducing the concepts of an absolutely smooth (i.e., ideal) plane, an absolutely round (ideal) body, as well as movement without resistance (movement in emptiness), etc. The study of ideal formations can be carried out using new mathematics. In this way, a rapprochement between a physical object and a mathematical one occurs, which is a prerequisite for classical mechanics.

It is quite obvious that the experiment has little in common with direct observation, to which the natural sciences of the previous period mainly turned. It is not surprising that the problem of constructing ideal objects, which forms the theoretical basis of the experiment, also became one of the central ones in the philosophy of the 17th century.

Teleological consideration of nature was in the 17th century. an obstacle to the new natural science, and therefore turned out to be the subject of the most severe criticism from the leading thinkers of this era. Science must discover the mechanical causality of nature, and therefore we should ask nature not the question “for what?”, but the question “why?”

First scientific revolution in natural science of the 16th – 17th centuries, its features. The formation of classical science. F. Bacon and R. Descartes are the founders of the philosophy and methodology of science of the New Age.

Francis Bacon is considered the founder of experimental science of the New Age. He was the first philosopher who set himself the task of creating scientific method. In his philosophy, the main principles characterizing the philosophy of the New Age were formulated for the first time.

From the very beginning of his creative activity, Bacon opposed the scholastic philosophy that was dominant at that time and put forward the doctrine of “natural” philosophy, based on experimental knowledge. Bacon's views were formed on the basis of the achievements of natural philosophy of the Renaissance and included a naturalistic worldview with the fundamentals of an analytical approach to the phenomena under study and empiricism. He proposed an extensive program for restructuring the intellectual world, sharply criticizing the scholastic concepts of previous and contemporary philosophy.

Bacon's understanding of science included, first of all, a new classification of sciences, in the basic principles of which he put such abilities human soul, as memory, imagination (fantasy), reason. The criterion for the success of sciences is the practical results to which they lead. Therefore, Bacon distinguishes between two types of experience: fruitful and luminous. The first is those experiences that bring direct benefit to a person, the luminous are those whose goal is to understand the deep connections of nature, the laws of phenomena, the properties of things. Bacon considered the second type of experiments to be more valuable, since without their results it is impossible to carry out fruitful experiments. The unreliability of the knowledge we receive is due, Bacon believes, to a dubious form of evidence, which relies on a syllogistic form of substantiation of ideas, consisting of judgments and concepts.

Bacon's experimental-inductive method consisted of the gradual formation of new concepts through the interpretation of facts and natural phenomena. Only with the help of such a method, according to Bacon, can new truths be discovered, and not mark time.

Bacon's inductive method includes the collection of facts and their systematization as necessary stages. Bacon put forward the idea of ​​compiling 3 research tables: tables of presence, absence, and intermediate stages.

Bacon's inductive method also includes conducting an experiment. At the same time, it is important to vary the experiment, repeat it, move it from one area to another, reverse the circumstances and connect it with others. After this, you can move on to the decisive experiment.

In the theory of knowledge, for Bacon, the main thing is to investigate the causes of phenomena. Causes can be different - either efficient, which is the concern of physics, or final, which is the concern of metaphysics.

Bacon's methodology largely anticipated the development of inductive research methods in subsequent centuries, right up to the 19th century; however, Bacon in his studies did not sufficiently emphasize the role of hypothesis in the development of knowledge, although in his time the hypothetico-deductive method of understanding experience was already emerging when one or another assumption was put forward , a hypothesis and various consequences are derived from it. At the same time, deductively carried out conclusions are constantly correlated with experience. In this regard, a big role belongs to mathematics, which Bacon did not possess sufficiently, and mathematical science was just being formed at that time.

Despite the fact that he gave great importance science and technology in human life. Bacon believed that the successes of science concern only “secondary causes”, behind which stands an omnipotent and unknowable God. At the same time, Bacon constantly emphasized that the progress of natural science, although it destroys superstition, strengthens faith. He argued that “light sips of philosophy sometimes push towards atheism, while deeper sips return to religion.”

The influence of Bacon's philosophy on contemporary natural science and the subsequent development of philosophy is enormous. His analytical scientific method of studying natural phenomena and the development of the concept of the need for its experimental study played a positive role in the achievements of natural science in subsequent centuries. Bacon's logical method gave impetus to the development of inductive logic. Bacon's classification of sciences was positively received in the history of sciences and even formed the basis for the division of sciences by French encyclopedists. Although the deepening of rationalist methodology in the further development of philosophy after Bacon's death reduced his influence in the 17th century, in subsequent centuries Bacon's ideas acquired their new meaning. They did not lose their importance until the 20th century. Some scholars even view him as a forerunner of modern intellectual life and a prophet of the pragmatic concept of truth. This refers to his statement: “What is most useful in action is most true in knowledge.”

Descartes, a French philosopher and mathematician, being one of the founders of the "new philosophy", the founder of Cartesianism, was deeply convinced that the truth "... is more likely to be encountered by an individual person than by an entire people." At the same time, he started from the “principle of evidence,” in which all knowledge had to be verified with the help of the natural “light of reason.” This implied the rejection of all judgments taken on faith.

Great philosopher, who proposed his own coordinate system in mathematics - the Cartesian - rectangular coordinate system (although Descartes had oblique and arbitrary ones), also proposed a starting point for public consciousness. According to Descartes, scientific knowledge had to be constructed as one system, while hitherto it was only a collection of random truths.

Descartes' self-awareness is not closed in on itself and is open to God, who acts as the source of thinking: all vague ideas are the product of man (and therefore false), all clear ideas come from God, therefore true. According to Descartes, matter is divisible to infinity (atoms and emptiness do not exist), and he explained movement using the concept of vortices. These premises allowed Descartes to identify nature with spatial extension, thus it was possible to present the study of nature as a process of its construction (such as geometric objects). Unlike Bacon, Descartes seeks the justification of knowledge not so much in the sphere of its practical implementation, but in the sphere of knowledge itself.

Science, according to Descartes, constructs a certain hypothetical world and this version of the world (scientific) is equivalent to any other if it is capable of explaining phenomena given in experience because It is God who is the “designer” of all things, and he could use this (scientific) version of the design of the world to implement his plans. This understanding of the world by Descartes as a system of finely constructed machines removes the distinction between the natural and the artificial. Subsequently, a similar principle was incorporated into the theory of mind modeling - cybernetics: “No system can create a system more complex than itself.” Thus, if the world is a mechanism, and the science about it is mechanics, then the process of cognition is the construction of a certain version of the world machine from the simplest principles that are in the human mind. As a tool, Descartes proposed his own method, which was based on the following rules: 1. Start with the simple and obvious; 2. By deduction, obtain more complex statements; 3. Act in such a way as not to miss a single link (continuity of the chain of conclusions), which requires intuition, which sees the first principles, and deduction, which gives consequences from them.

As a true mathematician, Descartes made mathematics the basis and model of the method, and in the concept of nature he left only definitions that fit into mathematical definitions - extension (magnitude), figure, motion. The most important elements of the method were measurement and order. Descartes expelled the concept of purpose from his teaching because... the concept of soul (as an intermediary between the indivisible mind (spirit) and the divisible body) was eliminated. Descartes identified the mind and soul, calling imagination and feeling modes of the mind. The elimination of the soul in its previous sense allowed Descartes to contrast two substances, nature and spirit, and turn nature into a dead object for cognition (construction) and use by man, but at the same time a serious problem arose in Descartes’ philosophy - the connection between soul and body, and since everything is the essence of mechanisms - tried to solve it mechanistically: in the “pineal gland” (where the seat of the soul is located according to Descartes), mechanical influences transmitted by the senses reach consciousness.

The formation of experimental science and the dynamics of technology development. The first successes in the development of the natural sciences and philosophical thought prepared the formation of experimental science and materialism in the 17th and 18th centuries. The transition from Renaissance science and philosophy with its interpretation of nature as multi-quality, living and even animate to a new stage in their development - to experimental mathematical natural science and mechanistic materialism - took place in the scientific activities of the English philosopher F. Bacon and the Italian scientist G. Galileo.

Thus, to XVIII century the preconditions were created for a qualitatively new era in the development of technology, as well as of all humanity.

In the production of objects of material culture, people moved from complex tools and machines driven by natural forces of water, wind, manual traction, etc. to tools operating with the help of an engine. However, even here there were transitional forms. For example, the first production machine invented, John Wyeth's spinning loom in 1735, was driven by a harnessed donkey 2 . So, by the 18th century, the problem of creating technological machines, primarily for textile production, arose.

The transition to machine technology required the creation of engines that did not depend on local sources of water and wind energy. The first engine using the thermal energy of fuel was a piston steam-atmospheric engine of intermittent action, which appeared in late XVII- early XVIII centuries. projects of the French physicist D. Papin and the English mechanic T. Severi, further improved by T. Newcomen in England and M. Triwald in Sweden.

In 1760, the owner of a spinning factory in Serpeisk, Kaluga province, Rodion Glinkov, built a 30-spindle machine for spinning flax driven by a water wheel and a winding machine, which replaced 10 people. The project of a universal steam engine was proposed in 1763 by Ivan Ivanovich Polzunov, a mechanic at the Kolyvano-Voskresensk factories, who doubled the cylinders in his machine, obtaining a continuous-action engine.

The universal heat engine received its fully developed form in 1784 in the steam engine of the English inventor, mechanic James Watt. In 1785, a steam engine was first supplied to drive a textile factory, and by the end of the century more than three hundred machines were operating in England and Ireland. In Russia in 1798-1799. steam engines were installed at the Aleksandrovskaya manufactory in St. Petersburg and at the Gumeshevsky plant in the Urals. In the second half of the 19th century. In the process of further improving the energy base of production, two new types of heat engines were created - a steam turbine and an internal combustion engine.

In parallel with the development of heat engines, the design of the first hydraulic engines was improved, especially hydraulic turbines designed by the French engineer B. Furneron, the American A. Pelton, and the Austrian V. Karplan.

The creation of powerful hydraulic turbines made it possible to build high-power hydropower units up to 600 MW and create large hydroelectric power stations in areas where there are large rivers and waterfalls. The most important changes in the development of the energy base of industrial production were associated with the invention of electric motors. In 1831, the English physicist M. Faraday discovered the phenomenon electromagnetic induction, and in 1834 the Russian scientist Jacobi created the first electric motor direct current, suitable for practical purposes.

In 1888-1889 engineer M.O. Dolivo-Dobrovolsky created a three-phase short-circuited asynchronous electric machine. In the first textbook on mechanics, only 134 different mechanisms were taken into account, although their number at the beginning of the 19th century. there were about 200, of which almost half were invented in the 18th century. I.I. Artobolevsky, in his famous reference book Mechanisms in Modern Technology, which has become widespread worldwide, took into account the end of the third quarter of the 20th century. 4746 mechanisms. Thus, emphasizes A.N. Bogolyubov, for 170 years from 1800 to 1970. the number of mechanisms increased almost 24 times, while from the 17th to the 19th centuries. it just doubled.

In the first half of the 20th century. New types of practically suitable engines were created - gas turbine, jet engine, nuclear power plant. Today, technology is developing rapidly. Very quickly after the creation of the first engine, humanity entered a phase of intensive development of automatic production, further penetration into the patterns of construction and interaction of organic and inorganic matter, exploration of near-Earth space, and the creation of artificial intelligence.

Below are two tables 2, which to some extent reflect the dynamics of the development of scientific and technological achievements. Opening Implementation, years Number of years Photograph Telephone Radio Television Radar Atomic bomb Transistor Maser 1727-1839 1820-1876 1867-1902 1922-1934 1925-1940 1936-1945 1948-1953 1956-1961 112 56 35 12 15 6 5 5 Managed to foresee Failed to foresee Cars Flying apparatus Steam engines Submarines Spaceships Phones Robots Death rays Artificial life X-rays Nuclear energy Electronics Sound recording Quantum mechanics Theory of relativity Superconductors Spectral analysis Geological clocks There are, however, sad facts in the history of the development of technology.

These include the loss of some remarkable knowledge or works of human hands. This happened when a person or community of people destroyed information and works, either intentionally or for the purposes of destruction and profit.

The most famous examples of the loss of knowledge are the secrets of the Sh Special method of manufacturing damask steel, characterized by a unique structure and type of surface pattern, high hardness and elasticity 1, art. Bulat from Persian pulad - steel. Patternedness is associated with the characteristics of smelting and crystallization. Since ancient times, mentioned by Aristotle, it is used for the manufacture of edged weapons of exceptional durability and sharpness - blades, swords, sabers, daggers, etc. Cast damask steel, obtained in the 40s of the 19th century. at the Zlatoust plant by P.P. Anosov is inferior to the best ancient oriental samples.

Ш Preparation of very durable and acid-resistant black and red varnishes, which served as the main colors in ancient vase painting. In addition, the book treasury of the burnt Alexandria Library, most of the seven wonders of the world, etc., were lost. There are examples of a different nature, reflecting the influence of individuals on the level of development of society.

These include the above fact that one of the greatest civilizations of antiquity - the Mayan civilization did not have a person who would have invented the wheel. 3. Reasons motivating the development of technology. Completing a short history development of technology since ancient times, it is necessary to say about the main reasons driving this development. After all, without a public order, some of the achievements of human thought were either not in demand or remained on paper.

Here is what the famous mechanic, mathematician, and mechanical historian N.D. writes about this. Moiseev 3 Indeed, Moiseev reasoned, in the development of mathematics, mechanics, chemistry there are calculations, measurements, experimental data, logical reasoning, in the mechanical and mathematical sciences there are axioms, theorems, their proofs, i.e. a collection of material that does not depend on the worldview of the natural scientist and on the social demands of society.

At the same time, in each era, when choosing one or another set of axioms, one or another way of interpreting the results of experiments, one or another context of theory, a scientist is sometimes forced to subconsciously be guided by one or another methodology, which is associated with a certain system of philosophical knowledge. The emergence of a particular doctrine, as a rule, meets the urgent needs of production and the economic life of society. For example, why exactly in the 17th century did outstanding scientists turn to the search for an accurate chronometer or watch?

Galileo, Huygens, Hooke and others offer fragments or final designs for pendulum clocks and spring balance chronometers. It is unlikely that they were prompted to do this by the exact fulfillment of the daily routine - breakfast, lunch and dinner or other similar concerns. The problem of the celestial orientation of a ship in the open ocean, associated with a series of Great geographical discoveries This is what inspired mathematicians and mechanics to make epoch-making inventions.

For these projects, they developed the latest infinitesimal theory of small oscillations of a mathematical and physical pendulum or spring balancer. In turn, the fearless sailors were driven to great voyages around the world not so much by curiosity as by the thirst for profit of those commercial and industrial figures who financed these expensive expeditions. Anyone will agree with the fact of the initial accumulation of capital, the shortest way to rob colonies in the 16th - 17th centuries. Thus, the real factor and pressing needs social development caused further mental technical, theoretical and philosophical reasoning, comprehending historical events. The issue of internal relationships of society is touched upon here. A person individually, as well as the human community, are the most complex systems and the basic laws of dialectics are fully valid for their development.

All of humanity can be mentally imagined as a planet on which everyone occupies his position in accordance with his life values.

In this case, some will be at the poles, some in different places on the equator, and some in between. One pole is characterized only by spiritual values: harmony of man with himself, society, nature, knowledge of the world for the sake of truth and mastery of new secrets of nature for the benefit of humanity. The other pole is characterized only by material values, satisfaction of all desires, Nietzsche’s philosophy, achievements in the field of comfort and pleasure, everything else is of interest only insofar as it contributes to the acquisition of the previous listed.

However, despite the complete opposite of the poles, everything together represents an integral viable system. Indeed, in addition to the struggle between these poles for their views on this world, there is also their unity. It is expressed depending on each other. In terms of technology, some are able to comprehend the secrets of nature and, at most, create only prototypes of inventions, but cannot fully implement them in life; others differ more activity and in the struggle for material wealth and sometimes for survival, having a certain power, due to their mentality, they can stimulate the activities of the former, but they themselves, as a rule, are not capable of creating something new due to the fragmentation of knowledge associated with the lack of a systemic view.

Such a person, even being naturally talented, can perfectly master any sections of human knowledge, however, he is not able to perceive this knowledge in its entirety as a system, which does not allow him to predict the further development of the processes that interest him, including foreseeing negative ones. its consequences. As a result of such interaction, the development of technology and material culture in general proceeds not just quickly, but sometimes with acceleration.

Those. The development of mainly material culture is stimulated. 4.

End of work -

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Development of technology from the simplest tools to astronautics

Technique from Greek. tеchne - art, skill, skill, set of means human activity created to carry out processes.. The main purpose of technology was previously partial or complete replacement.. Technology allows, based on knowledge of the laws of nature, to significantly increase the efficiency of human labor efforts..

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Experimental Science

The idea of ​​humanists to increase the importance of man and make him feel like a part of Nature gave rise to the first attempts to create experimental science.

Until this moment, science was a complex of theoretical knowledge. The laws of the Universe and Nature were formulated once and for all, and there was neither attempt nor need to test and confirm them.

Renaissance, on the contrary, elevates a person who feels himself a part of Nature, naturally connects himself with it and tries to understand, experience and describe its laws.

Thus, acting with the heart, a person comes to a new understanding of science. Other interesting points are added to this: for example, during the Renaissance, the original works of Plato, Pythagoras, and the works of Greek astronomers, geographers, and mathematicians reappeared, since for humanists it was very important to return to the original texts, thus moving away from medieval translations, dogmatic and tendentious.

The study of these ancient sources shocked followers who realized that many centuries ago there lived scientists, astronomers, geographers, mathematicians, physicians, and astrologers who interpreted the basic laws of the Universe with the help of numbers and formulas that the language of mathematics uses to explain these laws. An example is the Pythagoreans and Plato, who continued their philosophy.

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