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Enlightened absolutism in Western Europe in the 18th century. Enlightened absolutism: concept, ideas, goals

It was understood in a narrowly practical way: the concept of the state was reduced to the totality of the rights of state power. Holding firmly to the views developed by tradition, enlightened absolutism introduced at the same time a new understanding of the state, which already imposes responsibilities on the state power, which enjoys rights. The consequence of this view, which developed under the influence of the theory of the contractual origin of the state, was the theoretical limitation of absolute power, which caused European countries Oh whole line reforms, where, along with the desire for “state benefit”, concerns about the general welfare were put forward. "Enlightening" literature XVIII century, which set itself the task of a complete critique of the old order, found warm support in absolutism: the aspirations of philosophers and politicians agree that the reform should be carried out by the state and in the interests of the state. Therefore, a characteristic feature of enlightened absolutism is the union of monarchs and philosophers who wanted to subordinate the state to pure reason.

In literature, “enlightened absolutism” was greeted with enthusiasm. The entire political worldview of the leader of the century, Voltaire, is enlightened absolutism. The school of physiocrats, led by Quesnay, Mercier de la Rivière and Turgot, also held the same point of view. Guided by the principles and interests of state benefit, enlightened despots were very distrustful of social forces, not conceding anything of their power to the people. Transformations come exclusively from above. That is why enlightened absolutism could not sympathize with the aspirations for political freedom that limited the supreme power. This is where the duality that, in general, characterizes enlightened absolutism comes from, and its ahistorical direction, which distinguished the 18th century, which proclaimed natural law instead of historical law.

The process of enlightened absolutism covered all the countries of Europe, except England, Poland and France: England had already achieved what enlightened absolutism was striving for, in Poland there was no royal absolutism and the gentry dominated, and Louis XV and Louis XVI, who reigned in France, were not able to take took on the role of initiators of the reform, as a result of which the previous system was destroyed by the revolution.

The central figures in this era were Frederick II of Prussia (1740 to 1786) and Joseph II of Austria (1780 to 1790). Other representatives of enlightened absolutism:

  • in Spain - Minister of Aranda under Charles III (1759-1788)
  • in Portugal - Pombal (1760-1777) under Joseph Emanuel
  • in Naples - Tanucci's minister under Charles III and Ferdinand IV
  • in Tuscany - Leopold I (1765-1790)
  • in Denmark - Christian VII (1766-1807) with minister Struensee (1769-1772)
  • in Sweden - Gustav III (1771-1792)
  • in Poland - Stanislaw Poniatowski (1764-1795)

This also includes Karl-August of Weimar, Joseph Emmerich, Elector of Mainz, Clement of Saxony, Carmer, compiler of the Prussian code of laws, Bernsdorf, successor to Struensee's work, Sedlitz and Herzberg in Prussia, House - Frederick's mediator in Germany, Goltz - his representative in Paris , Mongela, who dreamed of reviving Bavaria, Furstenberg in Munster, Stadium in Mainz, Abel in Stuttgart, Filangieri in Naples, Schlettwein - minister in Baden, Villarmina, Sambucca, Caracciolo - in Sicily, Neri, Tavanti, Manfredini - in Tuscany, Aranda, Grimaldi , Florida Blanca, Campomanes - in Spain, Baron Kreutz and Baron Steel - in Sweden.

The activities of all these reformers were largely an imitation of the transformations of Frederick II and Joseph II, who embodied two directions that complement each other and fully characterize enlightened absolutism. Frederick was a conservative and in many ways only continued the old Hohenzollern policy, which he wanted to illuminate with the philosophical ideas of the century. Joseph II, more of a theorist, a “revolutionary on the throne,” broke with the policies of his predecessors and made a bold attempt to radically transform the entire system of Austria in the spirit of the philosophy of the 18th century. In his activities, as well as in the activities of Frederick II, there are many contradictions that the new state idea introduced into the traditional policy of absolutism. The nature of the transformations of P. absolutism was the same in all countries, changing only depending on local conditions; but it differed significantly in Protestant countries (Prussia) and Catholic countries (Austria).

Not in all countries the initiative for reform belonged to the kings. In Portugal, Spain and Naples, ministers acted as enlightened despots, and the same thing happened in Denmark during the time of Struensee. A common feature that distinguishes representatives of P. absolutism is despotism in carrying out their reforms, arrogance and often thoughtlessness and inconsistency.

All reforms of enlightened absolutism, which sought to destroy Catholic-feudal relations, were carried out not only for reasons of state, but also contributed to the emancipation of the individual. However, enlightened despots avoided one of the major shortcomings of state life in the 18th century. - imperfection of the legislative activity of the state and have not developed the correct order of legislation. Everything depended on the absolute monarch or his minister. The reforms of P. absolutism captured the area of ​​administration, finance, court, mental life, church, and finally - the area of ​​class relations and peasant life.

In the field of Petrograd administration, absolutism sought to bureaucratic centralization, to crowd out social forces by bureaucracy, and to suppress the interests of the nobility. P. absolutism was hostile to popular representation and tried to destroy local particularism. Joseph II violated the constitutions of the Austrian Netherlands and Hungary, Frederick II deprived the Silesian zemstvo officials of their right to vote taxes in 1741.

The economic activity of P. absolutism stemmed from the sympathy of enlightened despots for mercantilism, which placed trade and industry above all else, which were under the tutelage of the state. Striving to replenish state revenues and to retain gold and silver in the country, P. absolutism patronized the development of industry, protected and improved at the same time Agriculture. At the same time, P. absolutism paid special attention to the distribution of taxes and the streamlining of government spending.

Absolutism rendered enormous service to the judicial system and legislation. “One law for all” - this is the principle that guided P. absolutism. Torture was eliminated from criminal justice, the death penalty was limited, and justice was improved. An example of judicial reform was Prussia under Frederick II, who transformed the judicial system and legal proceedings and established correct order instead of arbitrariness. The task of enlightened absolutism was not only to separate the court from the administration and create the independence of judges, but also to compile a code of laws that was distinguished by simplicity, clarity and brevity. Samuel von Coczei, von Karmer and Suarez in Prussia undertook the compilation of a general code (Allgemeines Landrecht), which clearly reflected the influence of 18th-century philosophy. In Austria, already under Maria Theresa, the judiciary was separated from the administration. Joseph II worked very energetically to compile a code of laws and issued several private statutes. The code of laws published in Portugal by Pombal attracted the attention of the then scientific world. These reforms were imbued with humanity, respect for the human person and a sense of justice.

Serious measures were also taken to spread education. The mere admiration of kings for philosophers gave the press more freedom. On the other hand, the monarchs were indifferent to the press, since public opinion was forgotten. Therefore, the era of enlightened absolutism is characterized by greater freedom of the press, especially where political issues were not addressed. Censorship restrictions were limited (in Austria - the censorship statute of Joseph II in 1781), but they remained particularly strict in relation to the Catholic clergy.

Enlightened absolutism represents an era of strong antagonism between spiritual and secular power. Together with the “enlightenment,” absolutism had a negative attitude towards the traditions of Catholicism, defending the rights of the secular state from clerical tutelage and seeing a dangerous enemy in the Roman curia and clergy. The fight against Catholicism (in Catholic countries) was stubborn and often brutal. The power of the church was especially strong in Portugal, Spain, and Naples, which launched a campaign against the claims of medieval Catholicism. The legal significance of papal bulls was taken away if they were not approved by the king, the clergy was subordinated to secular courts, inquisitorial courts were closed, many monasteries were destroyed, and their estates were transferred to the treasury, the clergy were subject to taxes, etc. In Portugal, Pombal set an example of the expulsion of the Jesuits, whose order is being attacked from everywhere. In 1759, the Jesuits were expelled from Portugal, in 1764 - from France, then, in 1767-68, from Spain, Naples, Parma, until in 1773 the order was completely destroyed. Church reforms were taken to the extreme by Joseph II, who not only wanted to limit papal influence in Austria, weaken the power of the clergy, subordinating it to secular power, but even intervened in the ritual side of the faith, thereby inciting the masses against himself.

In the field of class relations in general and the peasant question in particular, P. absolutism also did a lot. And here, in the name of state benefit, the rulers fought against the remnants of feudalism, tried to reduce aristocratic privileges and limit the rights of the nobles and clergy. Pombal acted very sharply in Portugal, constraining the nobility. In Naples, the courts of the nobility were deprived of their power by the fact that they could be appealed to the royal court. In Sweden and Denmark, Gustav III and Struensee oppressed the nobility and armed them against themselves. In Austria, Joseph II caused strong opposition from the clergy and nobility because he wanted to destroy the tax privileges of the nobles and introduced a land tax.

In the same era, the peasant question was brought to the forefront for the first time. This was greatly facilitated by the physiocrats, who in their political views were on the side of enlightened absolutism, and many figures of enlightened absolutism were supporters of the physiocrats. Condemning the feudal rights that weighed down on landowners, literature of the 18th century. demanded the abolition of slavery and the end of serfdom. As a result, in the era of P. absolutism, attention was paid to the position of the rural masses, on which the enrichment of the treasury depends, and along with the patronage of the manufacturing industry, enlightened absolutism also patronizes peasant labor. In Prussia, Frederick II was the least likely of all the rulers to submit to physiocracy, but even here attention was paid to improving the life of the peasants. In Austria, the peasant question was brought forward by Joseph II, who formally abolished serfdom. The same thing happened in Savoy under Charles Emmanuel III.

Enlightened absolutism, which conceived so many state and social reforms, everywhere provoked a reaction that soon destroyed liberal gains, until the French Revolution completed the liquidation of the old order begun by enlightened absolutism.

In Russia, the implementation of the policy of Enlightened absolutism was not caused by internal reasons similar to those in Western Europe. In Russia, the church practically did not interfere in the affairs of state power, did not engage in witch hunts and did not establish the Inquisition. Accordingly, the attack on the church in the 18th century only led to the destruction of the moral values ​​of Russian society that had developed over centuries. The liberation of power from the influence of the church with the simultaneous division of society into enlightened nobles and unenlightened peasants split the people and undermined the barely established monarchical system (which was reflected in the 75-year period of coups and fictitious reigns of the queens after the death of Peter I). The enlightened class spoke first in German, then switched to French, and at the same time deeply despised the unenlightened Russian-speaking peasants, considering them exclusively as the subject of the exercise of absolute power. Considerations of morality, humanity and justice were forgotten along with church prejudices, while the positive program of the Enlightenment was carried out in an exclusively narrow circle of selected nobles and only in their interests. Therefore, the result of the Enlightenment in Russia was serfdom, which turned into pure slavery under Catherine II, as well as the formation of a self-sufficient bureaucratic system, the traditions of which still make themselves felt.


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Enlightened absolutism - the policy of absolutism in a number of European countries in the 2nd half of the 18th century, was expressed in the destruction from above and in the transformation of the most outdated feudal institutions (abolition of some class privileges, subordination of the church to the state, reforms - peasant, judicial, schooling, easing censorship, etc.). Representatives of enlightened absolutism in Western Europe: Maria Theresa (1740-1780) and Joseph II in Austria (1780-1790), Frederick II in Prussia (1740-1786), Gustav III in Sweden (1771-1792) and Catherine II in Russia (1762-1796).

Enlightened absolutism is characterized by the active activity of the autocratic state, aimed at legislatively consolidating serfdom, strengthening the privileges of the nobility, expanding the borders of the state, patronage of the development of industry and trade, brutal suppression of popular unrest, as well as a sharp contradiction between the liberal official ideology and the reactionary feudal-serf policy.
The essence of the policy of enlightened absolutism in Europe (using the example of Prussia, Austria, Spain):

PRUSSIA: 1. Streamlining the activities of financial and judicial authorities

2. Expansion primary education

3. Increasing tolerance towards non-believers

5. Carrying out a policy of mercantilism (protecting the national commodity producer, encouraging trade through the active construction of roads and canals)

6. Abolition of torture

7. Introduction of an equal court for all.

At the same time, such experiences absolute monarchy, as censorship, a ban on leaving the country, serfdom on privately owned lands are preserved

AUSTRIA: 1. Limitation of the lord’s arbitrariness in relation to the peasant in court, “Joseph’s Lawyer”; limitation of the use of the death penalty

2. Introduction of secular lower and secondary education

3. Limitation of the privileges of the Catholic Church

4. Abolition of internal duties and the introduction of high external duties (policy of mercantilism)



5. Abolition of serfdom, provision of land to peasants

At the same time, recruitment has become tougher, power is being centralized in the Habsburg Empire (control over the autonomies - Galicia, Hungary - is constantly strengthening), etc.

SWEDEN: 1. Press Freedom Law

2. Freedom of religion

3. Abolition of class restrictions on holding public office

However, in last years During the reign, the centralization of power increased, in particular, the parliament (Rigsdag) was convened at the will of the king, and the advisory body under him, the State Council, was abolished.

Conclusion: So, by the end of the 18th century, the possibilities of absolutism for maintaining the foundations of the “old order” were noticeably narrowed. Living in the old way, without changing anything, became more and more difficult. To keep the situation under control, it was necessary to maintain a huge state apparatus, buy the loyalty of the aristocracy with the help of benefits, and increase spending on the army as the main guarantor of the country's security. But all this required more and more money. Only a dynamically developing economy could ensure their influx. However, the “old order,” with its cruel, petty regulation of all aspects of economic activity, numerous restrictions that constrained the entire socio-economic sphere, prevented the formation of a market economy, which alone is capable of providing a qualitative leap in the development of society.

Attempts by representatives of enlightened absolutism to find a solution to the accumulated problems through individual reforms also did not bring the desired result. The cruel canons on which medieval society was based were difficult to reform: everything in it was extremely interconnected and interdependent, and any attempt to somehow modify any of the supporting structures immediately noticeably undermined the stability of the entire system. Because of this, the reforms of the enlightened monarchs, while removing the most stringent and outdated restrictions, somewhat expanding the opportunities for social progress, at the same time undermined the foundations of the world order into which they tried to breathe new life. Thus, this development option, although not as obvious as the openly protective one, has also largely exhausted its possibilities.

The Enlightenment politicized public consciousness and contributed to the growth of revolutionary sentiments in society. A clear indication of the brewing social crisis was the great French Revolution, the main reason for which was widespread dissatisfaction among sections of the population with the dominant feudal-absolutist system and its inconsistency with the tasks of economic, social and political development countries.

“Enlightened” absolutism in Russia

In Russia, the transitional era from feudalism to capitalism is fundamentally different from a similar era in Western European countries. There it was the period of initial accumulation of capital. TO XVIII century In these countries, a fairly large financially and economically powerful layer of enterprising people - the bourgeoisie - has emerged. It was her interests and finances that stimulated the development of science and technology; her political claims and ideas gave rise to the ideology of the Enlightenment. In Russia, even in the 18th century, we can only talk about the origins of this layer. If in European countries the ideology of the Enlightenment was born in the struggle against the dominant ideology of the feudal nobility, that is, with the official state ideology, moreover, in political struggle with the state, then in Russia the Enlightenment itself arose thanks to the efforts of the great enlightener-Emperor Peter I, that is, under the influence of state enlightenment. The essence of the policy of enlightened absolutism was to carry out reforms in the economic, political and cultural fields from above, within the framework of the state form of absolute monarchy, aimed at eliminating the most outdated manifestations of the feudal order that hindered the progress of the feudal order.
In Russia, the concept of enlightened absolutism is inextricably linked with the reign of Catherine II. The objective need for transformations that corresponded to the spirit of the times was perceived by Catherine as a task not so much practical as theoretical. She treated the views of the Enlightenment with caution, believing that it was necessary to know them, but it should be borne in mind that they could coexist with principles of a different order. Therefore, true political wisdom, in her opinion, lay precisely in the ability to bring the principles of different orders to agreement. Considering herself a republican at heart, she still saw a model of government suitable for Russia in autocracy or despotism. According to Catherine, the best way organization of society is the development of an ideal system of laws. Correctly drafted laws are a guarantee of a well-functioning state. Therefore, a very important matter of Catherine’s policy of “enlightened absolutism” was the revision of the code of laws of the Council Code of 1649. The headquarters for the development of the new Code was the Code Commission, whose deputies were elected throughout the country. In order to give the Commission the appropriate direction, the Empress personally compiled an “Order” for it. The main task of the “Nakaz” is to show that in Russia there can only be an autocratic method of government. The guarantor of legality and justice, property of the nobles and bourgeoisie, religious tolerance, according to Catherine, is only the word of the monarch. The grand opening of the commission took place on July 30, 1767 in Moscow. The practical discussion of the “Order” and the debates of deputies revealed serious disagreements and self-interested group and class interests. Taking advantage of the war with Turkey, the empress dissolved the legislative campaign. Thus, Catherine II tried to carry out a large-scale experiment to “introduce” social theory into the practice of state life in Russia, while maintaining the inviolability of autocratic power.
Catherine decided that the most convenient field where she could show off the political ideas borrowed from the French enlighteners was the system of local government. Because of this, November 7, 1775 An institution for governing the province appeared (provincial reform). A new regional administration was introduced, the empire was already divided into 50 provinces - the main administrative entities. At the head of the provincial government was the governor or governor. All provinces received a uniform structure based on a strict separation of administrative, financial and judicial affairs. Closely related to the provincial reform were the transformations of central institutions, the purpose of which was to transmit the orders of the empress, that is, to concentrate all the threads of government in her hands. The most important link in public administration became the Cabinet of Catherine II with its secretaries of state. In 1769 it was transformed into the Imperial Council.

The most important act of consolidating the privileges of the nobility was the “Charter Committed to the Nobility” of 1785. It confirmed the exemption of nobles from compulsory service and the right of ownership assigned to them in 1782 not only “to the surface of the earth”, but also to “possible utilities”, hidden in its depths. The nobles received the right to create their own local class organizations - district and provincial noble assemblies. The right to vote was enjoyed by landowners who owned villages, and the right to election to office was enjoyed by those who received the rank of chief officer in active service. Assemblies of the nobility, if necessary, could address not only the governor, but also directly the tsar. Class self-government of the nobility made it possible to create a society or assembly endowed with the rights of a legal entity. The personal rights of nobles included the right to noble dignity, the right to protection of honor, personality and life, exemption from corporal punishment, and from compulsory civil service. Property rights of the nobility: full and unlimited right of ownership to acquire, use and inherit any type of property. The exclusive right of the nobles to buy villages and own land and peasants was established. Thus, the Russian nobility received civil rights that had long been enshrined in Western society for property owners.
The “charter to the cities” determined the uniform status of the entire population of cities, regardless of professional occupations and types of activity. This was consistent with the idea of ​​creating a “middle class of people.” The unified legal status of the urban population was based on the recognition of the city as a special organized territory with a special administrative system of management and types of occupation of the population. According to the Charter, city self-government bodies were created: the general city duma and the six-vocal duma (executive authority).
Under Catherine II, much attention was paid to the development of the social sphere: education, medicine, social assistance the sick, the homeless, the elderly. In 1786, the principle of classless education was proclaimed in the organization of provincial and district public schools. In Russia, in addition to the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences, other large scientific centers appeared: Moscow University was opened in 1755, and founded in 1783. Russian Academy, the purpose of which was to study the Russian language and literature. In Catherine's era, two trends are visible in the socio-economic development of Russia. On the one hand, the rejection of monopolies in industry and trade, the encouragement of industries and private entrepreneurship. On the other hand, the strengthening of serfdom, which gave rise to mass uprisings of peasants, including armed ones.

An important component of “enlightened absolutism” was the transfer to public administration monastic and church lands. In Russia, where the total surplus product barely reached the permissible minimum, the problem of increasing treasury revenues at the expense of the church was very important. The idea of ​​secularizing church property occupied the thoughts of Ivan III, but Catherine II brought the matter to completion. The widespread dissemination of Enlightenment ideas contributed to the development of social thought aimed at sharply criticizing the serfdom system. In contrast to the projects of the nobility, seeking to protect the autocratic-serf system, Russian educators stood on the position of universal morality; they were distinguished by their rejection of serfdom and ardent sympathy for the serf peasants.
Thus, the basis of the theory and practice of Russian absolutism was social and political conservatism. Catherine II strove to preserve autocratic power and the existing social system, allowing for a certain renewal in politics and economics, which ensured the stability of power and its support - the nobility. XVIII left to subsequent generations of compatriots the solution of the most pressing issues - the liberation of peasants and democratization political system in Russia.

“The 18th century, as is known, was the century of enlightened absolutism.

If there is one thing that astonishes the observer in this century, it is the number of able monarchs that suddenly arose throughout Europe; in those cases when the monarchs turned out to be not very capable, like Peter III or Paul I, they quickly received a snuff-box to the temple from the conscious elite.

This, if you think about it, is amazing. Power corrupts and absolute power absolutely corrupts. Neither before nor since has any absolute power demonstrated such widespread effectiveness.

The Roman emperors were brought up with the highest and freedom-loving culture, and then for one century there was only one Titus for every ten degenerates. In the 20th century, for every ten Duvaliers and Marcoses there was one Pinochet. Look into the history of the long-haired Merovingians - this is a freak show! And suddenly, in the 18th century. - such total efficiency.

The phenomenon of enlightened absolutism is explained quite simply: this is the first case in history of modernization from above. European monarchs tried to keep up with England, not by privatizing, as in England, most of the functions of the state, but by imposing modernization from above. It was a race to the bottom: the ineffective simply disappeared from history.

They were conquered and dismembered. Take, for example, the history of two neighboring countries - Prussia and Poland. Both were located in the center of Europe, the geographical positions of both were completely unprotected. Poland did not carry out any modernization and was dismembered.

Came to power in Prussia Frederick the Great, a dreamy young man who tried to escape from the palace as a child, and a great freethinker. For him, the crown was “just a hat that doesn’t protect you from the rain,” and he once said about Christianity that it was invented by fanatics, but idiots believe in it. Patriot from Friedrich was, by today's standards, no good: he couldn't even stand native language. He spoke with all his associates in French, and German was for him “the language spoken with horses.”

However, this romantic young man, with an iron fist, introduced absolutely liberal laws and a completely incorruptible bureaucracy into Prussia, increased the Prussian army from 80 thousand to 195 thousand people, and in his palace San Souci made do with two pages and did not have a personal servant. To Friedrich said about 26 palaces Putin, I leave it to you to imagine.

Reason for reform Frederick the Great was very simple: Prussia, stretched out in the middle of Europe, would simply cease to exist without such reforms. With them it eventually became the German Empire.

In essence, the entire 19th century is an example of European rulers who competed in reforms in one way or another. Peter I, Frederick the Great, Napoleon- only the most striking examples.

By the beginning of the 20th century, the same kind of reforms began to be carried out in Asian countries. The most striking examples were the revolution and reforms Ataturk. It is interesting that the reformers never tried to preserve, as they say now, “the precious features of local culture.” On the contrary, they implanted not only European science and European customs, but also European clothing. The formal dress at the court of Japanese emperors is still a tailcoat. Ataturk banned the veil and transferred Turkey to the Latin alphabet . The head of Singapore probably went the furthest in the 1960s Lee Kuan Yew, he just forced the whole country, 80% whose population was Chinese, speak English.

Reason and reform Ataturk, and the reforms of the Meiji era are simple - Japan or Turkey, in the absence of reforms, would have either been conquered, or at least by the 1930s would have found themselves in the sphere of influence of Great Britain, like, say, Egypt or Iran, which did not carry out such reforms. Singapore, a tiny island with an area of ​​710 square meters. km, separated by a kilometer strait from Malaysia and twenty kilometers from Indonesia, simply would not survive among its aggressive neighbors.

This, in fact, is the fundamental difference between those reforms and the present time. Now not a single country will be conquered if it refuses modernization (Exceptions, such as Singapore or Israel, are extremely rare.)

If the army and economy of Russia in the 18th century were in the same condition in which they are now, then Russia would simply lose part of its territory. In favor of Sweden, Poland, Germany, Turkey - anyone. It is clear that Putin war with Sweden and the loss of St. Petersburg are not threatened.

This also applies to any other dictators. Hugo Chavez Not Robert Mugabe is threatened by war with the US Not threatens war with the UN. The incentive to modernize that existed among Frederick the Great or Napoleon, disappears, but another motive remains: the motive Not allow the emergence of an independent business class in the country, which always demands its rights to life, freedom and the pursuit of happiness.”

Latynina Yu.L. , Russian baker. Essays on a liberal pragmatist, M., “Astrel”, 2012, p. 356-359.


ENLIGHTENED ABSOLUTISM
IN EUROPE
Enlightened absolutism - the policy of absolutism in a number of European countries in
The 2nd half of the 18th century was expressed in the destruction from above and in the transformation of the most outdated feudal institutions (abolition of some class privileges, subordination of the church to the state, reforms - peasant, judicial, school education, softening of censorship, etc.).
Representatives of enlightened absolutism in Western Europe: Maria Theresa
(1740-1780) and Joseph II in Austria (1780-1790), Frederick II in Prussia (1740-
1786), Gustav III in Sweden (1771-1792) and Catherine II in Russia (1762-1796).
What united them?
Firstly, the understanding that in order to preserve the basic foundations of the “old order”, society needs certain changes. All of the monarchs listed above can be called conservative reformers. The set of reforms carried out during this period was approximately the same in all countries: promotion of trade, development of education, limitation of the scope of activity of guild structures, an attempt to optimize finance and public administration, and, finally, very careful steps aimed at modernizing agrarian relations.
Secondly, a change in the elite’s views on the world, society itself, and the state.
The entire hierarchy of values ​​that guided the enlightened monarchs and their entourage was transformed. Previously, the worldview of both the top and bottom of society was based on church dogmas. Based on them, the norms were determined Everyday life, relationships between various social groups, substantiated the principles of government, brought the tasks of the state to international arena. Now they sought to find a rational explanation and justification for all aspects of society. Patronage of science and art became a sign of good manners.
Finally, the departure from theological imperatives prepared the way for a gradual transition to civil society. Of course, no one planned its creation. But objectively, all those reforms discussed above, all the shifts in the mentality of the elite, powerful explosion humanitarian knowledge predetermined the deepening crisis of the old society. As a result, the outwardly magnificent flowering of absolutism only camouflaged its numerous internal flaws.
Thirdly, the change in views on the essence of the state, its nature, entailed the acceleration of the process of formation of the concept of state interests of the leading countries of Europe, which began in the mid-17th century. This contributed to the strengthening of systemic principles in international relations, united individual European countries into a single complex, living according to its own common norms, and strengthened legal principles. In other words, enlightened absolutism gave impetus to the formation of such a phenomenon as European civilization.
By enlightened absolutism, some authors understand a policy that, using social demagoguery and the slogans of enlighteners, pursued the goal of preserving the old order. Other historians have tried to show how enlightened absolutism, while serving the interests of the nobility, simultaneously contributed to bourgeois development. Still others approach the issue of enlightened absolutism from an academic position; they see it as one of the stages in the evolution of an absolute monarchy.
Philosophical prerequisites for absolutism. XVIII century - the time of dominance of educational ideology. French Voltaire, C. Montesquieu, D. Diderot,
J.-J.. Rousseau and the English enlighteners J. Locke and T. Hobbes formulated the main provisions of the enlightenment concept of social development:
1. T. Hobbes created the theory of the social contract, which consisted in the hypothesis of the emergence of the state as the executor of the social contract, designed to protect people in the process of aggressive competition. AND.-
J. Rousseau argued that in response to the state's acceptance of obligations to protect the rights of citizens, the latter are obliged to promote the common good by subordinating their interests to general laws. He substantiated the superiority of the republican state system over the monarchical one, as providing a democratic mechanism of governance in the state.
2. C. Montesquieu formulated the principle of separation of powers and formulated the postulate that the goal of any form of state is to preserve freedom on the basis of law. The theory of separation of legislative, executive and judicial powers, their independence from each other, could, according to the ideas of the Enlightenment, provide a perfect social order.
3. Diderot fought against the omnipotence of the church, considering the demands made by it on a person not based on the arguments of reason and, therefore, not fair.
4. J. Locke first identified three most important human rights: the right to life, the right to freedom, the right to property (not possession, but the result of labor).
The cornerstone of all Enlightenment theories was the belief in the omnipotence of reason. Enlighteners advocated the equality of all before the law, the right of everyone to appeal to higher authorities governance, deprivation of the church of secular power, inviolability of property, humanization of criminal law, support for science and technology, freedom of the press, agrarian reform, and fair taxation.
Philosophers saw one of the ways to achieve freedom, equality and fraternity in the activities of enlightened monarchs - sages on the throne who, using their power, would help educate society and establish justice. The idea of ​​the state as the main instrument for achieving public good dominated the minds of people of that time. But the monarchs’ understanding of equality and freedom did not go further than consolidating the rights and privileges of each class within the framework of an autocratic monarchy.
Historical background of absolutism. In the second half of the 18th century, absolutism, which established itself in Europe and gave unlimited power monarchs, was already declining. In England, the death blow to absolutism was dealt by the revolution (1640-1660). There the king was no longer “by the grace of God,” but by the grace of parliament. In France, where the bourgeoisie, strengthened and possessing a developed self-awareness, did not want to be content with half-concessions to the feudal aristocracy, things were heading towards a bloody outcome. In most European countries, where the possibilities of absolutism had not yet been exhausted, a special policy was developed aimed at strengthening the dominance of the nobles in the conditions of the emergence of capitalism. In the second half of the 18th century it was carried out in
Austria, Prussia, Russia, Denmark, Sweden, Spain, Italy, Portugal.
Enlightened absolutism is characterized by the active activity of the autocratic state, aimed at legislatively consolidating serfdom, strengthening the privileges of the nobility, expanding the borders of the state, patronage of the development of industry and trade, brutal suppression of popular unrest, as well as a sharp contradiction between the liberal official ideology and the reactionary feudal-serf policy.
Historical development of enlightened absolutism. In the countries listed above, the absolutist state, unable to prevent the development of the bourgeoisie, decided to make some concessions to it. It was just trying to seem
“enlightened”, remaining fundamentally unchanged and still defending the interests of the nobility. And the bourgeoisie in these countries, even in the 18th century, was more interested in the feudal-absolutist state than it was in the bourgeoisie. Monarchs loved to talk about " common good”, about the “national benefit”, sometimes successfully creating the illusion that they serve all subjects equally.
The result was a paradoxical thing: the ideas of the Enlightenment, hostile to absolutism, were used to justify it. Many sovereigns and their ministers were sincerely interested in them, especially in their youth. They really liked the idea of ​​a state headed by an enlightened monarch who consults with philosophers and transforms society on new, reasonable principles. In the 18th century, this idea was diligently spread by many educators, especially Voltaire, who spent a long time visiting Frederick II in Prussia. Objectively, this reflected the desire of the moderate-liberal part of the bourgeoisie to carry out bourgeois reforms without revolution, through reforms from above. This course of development, which preserved the dominant position of the nobility, suited the monarchs quite well. Among the enlighteners there were principled opponents of the absolutist regime, but they did not find support in those countries where the bourgeoisie was still too weak to dream of power. In addition, the practice of elevating people from other classes to the nobility and awarding titles bore fruit.
And yet, the most urgent transformations in absolutist states were carried out: some class privileges were eliminated, for example, they began to levy taxes on the nobles (in Austria - under Maria Theresa, in Prussia - under
Frederick II), peasant reforms were carried out, the most radical ones under
Joseph II, who abolished serfdom in Austria. The church gradually became subordinate to the state, the latter appropriated its lands and closed the monastic orders. In 1759, the Marquis of Pombal, who headed the government of Portugal, achieved the expulsion of the Jesuits from the country and the confiscation of the enormous wealth of this order. In Spain and Portugal the number of monasteries was reduced, and secular education was begun. Gradually, religious tolerance was established in society. Frederick II, for example, loved to repeat: “Let everyone be saved in my own way,” meaning the salvation of the soul. A monstrous relic of the Middle Ages - torture - was eradicated from judicial practice.
The “witch hunt” stopped.
Rulers and their assistants, especially lawyers, used the arguments of the Enlightenment to justify feudal-absolutist legislation, which contradicted the bourgeois understanding of law. The same applies to the theory of the state. The practice of governing the country was very far from the ideals of the Enlightenment, although sovereigns often resorted to their philosophy to justify their undivided dominance. The theory of the social contract, invented by the Enlightenment, was perceived by the monarchs as an agreement according to which the people had to completely obey them. As soon as the main interests of the nobility were at stake, the ruler’s willingness to make concessions, no matter how he flirted with the enlighteners, immediately ended. Thus, many of the autocrats, although they approved of the Enlightenment theories of education, and sometimes even allowed them to be tested in practice, did not, however, dare to abolish the class school, which reflected the structure of society and the privileged position of the nobility in it. This, in particular, explains Frederick II’s hostile attitude towards Rousseau: “I patronize only such free thinkers who have decent manners and reasonable ideas.” The main supporters of enlightened absolutism were, along with the kings and their ministers, also part of the nobility, who considered it necessary, mainly for economic reasons, to weaken feudal dependence, and many bourgeois farmers. The revolution in France, which destroyed absolutism in the country and frightened the monarchs of all Europe, put an end to the policy of enlightened absolutism where it had not been stopped even earlier.
The essence of the policy of enlightened absolutism in Europe (using the example of Prussia,
Austria, Spain):
. PRUSSIA: 1. Streamlining the activities of financial and judicial authorities
2. Expansion of primary education
3. Increasing tolerance towards non-believers
4. Prohibition of landowners driving peasants off their plots
5. Carrying out a policy of mercantilism (protecting the national commodity producer, encouraging trade through the active construction of roads and canals)
6. Abolition of torture
7. Introduction of an equal court for all.
At the same time, such remnants of the absolute monarchy as censorship, a ban on leaving the country, and serfdom on privately owned lands have been preserved
. AUSTRIA: 1. Limitation of the lord’s arbitrariness in relation to the peasant in court, “Joseph’s Lawyer”; limitation of the use of the death penalty
2. Introduction of secular lower and secondary education
3. Limitation of the privileges of the Catholic Church
4. Abolition of internal duties and the introduction of high external duties (policy of mercantilism)
5. Abolition of serfdom, provision of land to peasants
At the same time, recruitment has become tougher, power is being centralized in the Habsburg Empire (control over autonomies (
Galicia, Hungary (constantly growing), etc.
. SWEDEN: 1. Press Freedom Law
2. Freedom of religion
3. Abolition of class restrictions on holding public office
At the same time, in the last years of the reign, the centralization of power increased, in particular, the parliament (Rigsdag) was convened at the will of the king, and the advisory body under him (the State Council) was abolished.
Conclusion: So, by the end of the 18th century, the possibilities of absolutism for maintaining the foundations of the “old order” were noticeably narrowed. Living in the old way, without changing anything, became more and more difficult. To keep the situation under control, it was necessary to maintain a huge state apparatus, buy the loyalty of the aristocracy with the help of benefits, and increase spending on the army as the main guarantor of the country's security. But all this required more and more money. Only a dynamically developing economy could ensure their influx. However, the “old order,” with its cruel, petty regulation of all aspects of economic activity, numerous restrictions that constrained the entire socio-economic sphere, prevented the formation of a market economy, which alone is capable of providing a qualitative leap in the development of society.
Attempts by representatives of enlightened absolutism to find a solution to the accumulated problems through individual reforms also did not bring the desired result. The cruel canons on which medieval society was based were difficult to reform: everything in it was extremely interconnected and interdependent, and any attempt to somehow modify any of the supporting structures immediately noticeably undermined the stability of the entire system. Because of this, the reforms of the enlightened monarchs, while removing the most stringent and outdated restrictions, somewhat expanding the opportunities for social progress, at the same time undermined the foundations of the world order into which they tried to breathe new life. Thus, this development option, although not as obvious as the openly protective one, has also largely exhausted its possibilities.
The Enlightenment politicized public consciousness and contributed to the growth of revolutionary sentiments in society. A clear indication of the brewing social crisis was the great French Revolution, the main reason for which was widespread dissatisfaction among sections of the population with the dominant feudal-absolutist system and its inconsistency with the tasks of the economic, social and political development of the country.

Enlightenment is a necessary stage in cultural development. “Have the courage to use your own mind!” - so German philosopher Immanuel Kant(1724-1804) determined the essence of the mentality of his era, which was called the century Enlightenment. After the Renaissance and Reformation, this was the third spiritual revolution, which almost completely ended the medieval value system.

The Enlightenment was a powerful international movement. It constituted the main content of the internal life of Western Europe in the first three quarters of the 18th century.

Enlightenment is a necessary step in the cultural development of any country that is parting with the feudal way of life. At its core, the Enlightenment is democratic. The Enlightenment clings tenaciously to the idea of ​​formal law, seeing it as a guarantee of humanism. The Enlightenment is not tied to a specific chronology. The collapse of feudal relations in different countries happened at different times. England and Holland were ahead of other European countries, followed by France and Germany.

Enlightenment of the 18th century. was a major phenomenon in European life, and its influence was reflected not only in the mental development of European society, but also in the comprehensive coverage and criticism of outdated forms of life preserved from the Middle Ages. The Enlightenment entered into a struggle with those aspects of the previous system that did not meet the requirements of modernity.

English Enlightenment. The special role of England in the history of the European Enlightenment lay primarily in the fact that it was its homeland and, in many respects, a pioneer. The main outlines of the political program of the English Enlightenment were formulated by the philosopher John Locke(1632-1704), who viewed the state as a product of mutual agreement between people. He put forward moral criteria for the behavior of people in society. Not civil laws, but moral norms, which are established “by hidden and tacit consent,” should, according to Locke, be the natural regulator of interpersonal relations.

Locke's constitutional ideas were largely embodied in the political system of England, since the class compromise between the bourgeoisie and the nobility was realized in it. Proclaiming the highest goal is the happiness of a particular person, and not of humanity as a whole, the English enlighteners had in mind, first of all, personal prosperity. Locke emphasized: “We are born into the world with such abilities and powers, in which lies the possibility of mastering almost any thing, and which, in any case, can lead us further than we can imagine: but only the exercise of these powers can give us skill and art. lead us to perfection in something.” Emphasizing the importance of the personal creative effort of each person, his knowledge and experience, the English enlighteners grasped the needs of 18th-century society in the best possible way.

In the 18th century in England, old forms of state power were filled with new content. In 1701, Parliament adopted two documents that made it impossible for the Stuart dynasty to return to the British throne. The first document, the Bill of Succession to the Throne, transferred the throne to representatives of the Hanoverian dynasty. The second document - “Status on the structure of the kingdom” - introduced parliamentarism - the responsibility of ministers to parliament. The actual strengthening of Parliament's power occurred during the reign of Queen Anne (1665-1714). At the same time, royal power deteriorated, and under George II(1683-1760) the king lost his veto power over laws adopted by parliament and could not take part in government meetings. Parliament consisted of two chambers - the House of Lords and the House of Commons. Two political parties took an active part in the struggle between parliament and the king - Tory And Whigs, created back in the 17th century.

For 45 years (since 1714), England was ruled not by a king, but by ministers from the Whig party, defending the interests of the big bourgeoisie. The situation changed in 1760 with the coming to power of the king George III(1738-1820), throughout the 60 years of his reign the ruling party remained Tory, defending the interests of supporters of absolutism.

The essentially constitutional and parliamentary monarchy that was established in Great Britain in the first half of the 18th century turned out to be precisely the forerunner of that political system, the establishment of which entailed the strengthening and victory of new capitalist relations.

French Enlightenment. The idea of ​​the moral revival of society through political methods - popular uprising, nationalization of broad spheres of public life - gave special originality to the French Enlightenment, whose outstanding representatives were Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778), Charles Louis Montesquieu(1689-1755), Voltaire (1634-1778), Denis Diderot(1783-1784), etc.

Rousseau outlined his political views in the essay “On the Social Contract,” in which he puts society at the forefront, proving that society previously owned all the power, which it transferred by agreement to the rulers so that they would use this power in the interests of society itself. But since the rulers began to abuse power to the detriment of society, Rousseau suggests that society again take power into its own hands to create a democratic-republican state. In such a state, every full member of society must take a direct part in governance, legislation and court. In this way, according to Rousseau, civil equality will be achieved.

Montesquieu's main work, “On the Spirit of Laws,” contained the ideas of law and state, and therefore was relevant for many European monarchs. In it, Montesquieu holds the idea that the legislation and government structure of each country must adapt to its climatic and soil conditions, as well as to the religion, character and degree of development of its people. Of the various forms of government, he gives preference to the republican one; he considers its application in practice possible provided that all citizens are equally developed and ready to play the role of rulers. He did not see the possibility in modern states for a republican form of government, so he settled on a constitutional monarchy, in which executive power belongs to the monarch, and legislative power belongs to elected people's representatives. The court must be independent from the administration.

In his political views, Voltaire was a monarchist and was in friendship and correspondence with many European monarchs. To ensure that the possession of autocratic power does not lead to abuses and arbitrariness, according to Voltaire, sovereigns must be philosophically educated, surrounded by philosophers and guided by a philosophy that guarantees the justice and usefulness of their orders. Voltaire preached the principles of humanity and justice, insisted on a radical transformation of medieval forms of legal proceedings, the abolition of torture, called for the abolition of serfdom, and the abolition of feudal privileges.

The so-called encyclopedists - members of the circle of the philosopher Diderot, who published from 1751 to 1776. "Encyclopedia of Sciences, Arts and Crafts." They criticized existing views and orders, called for judicial reform, religious freedom, the abolition of class privileges, the liberation of peasants, popular representation and other democratic rights and freedoms of citizens.

Enlightened absolutism. In the second half of the 18th century. In connection with the pan-European economic and demographic boom, the ruling circles of European countries increasingly realized the need to modernize the economic and political system. This pan-European phenomenon is traditionally called enlightened absolutism.

The essence of the policy of enlightened absolutism was to, without essentially changing the state forms of the absolute monarchy, within the framework of these forms, to carry out reforms from above in the economic, political, and cultural fields, aimed at modernizing the outdated phenomena of the feudal order. The Prussian king gave the most in-depth monarchical concept of enlightened absolutism Frederick II the Great(1712-1786), who left behind a 30-volume collected works. Under the influence of the ideas of the Enlightenment, Frederick II issued a set of laws - the “Frederic Code”, which introduced equal justice for all in Prussia, established complete religious tolerance, and abolished torture. However, Frederick II's passion for the ideas of the Enlightenment was shallow, as can be judged by his practical affairs. Thus, he left the entire social system of Prussia, with the predominance of the nobility over other classes, unchanged.

More consistently pursued a policy of enlightened absolutism Joseph II(1741-1790), who after the death of his father Franz Stefan became German Emperor, and after the death of his mother Maria Theresa inherited the Austrian possessions. During his ten-year reign in Austria (1780-1790), he carried out a number of reforms, the main of which was the liberation of peasants from serfdom and the provision of land to them. The most profound and consistent reforms of Joseph II affected legal proceedings (“Joseph’s Lawyer”). However, he also eliminated the autonomy of the lands and provinces of the Habsburg Empire and encouraged the German colonization of Hungary, Transville, and Galicia.

The Enlightenment politicized public consciousness and contributed to the growth of revolutionary sentiments in society.

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