The subject of history as a science. Functions of history. Approaches to the study of history.

History is a social science that studies the past of mankind as a historical process. The original meaning of the word “history” goes back to an ancient Greek term meaning “investigation, recognition, establishment.” History was identified with establishing the authenticity and truth of events and facts. In Roman historiography (historiography is a branch of historical science that studies its history), this word began to mean not a method of recognition, but a story about the events of the past. Soon, “history” began to be called any story about any incident, real or fictitious. Currently, the word “history” has two meanings: 1) a story about the past; 2) the name of the science that studies the past, life and life of peoples.

History, as a subject of science, examines the process of development of society as a whole, analyzes the totality of the phenomena of social life, all its aspects (economics, politics, culture, everyday life, etc.), their relationships and interdependence. History as a science operates with precisely established facts. As in other sciences, history continues to accumulate and discover new facts. These facts are extracted from historical sources. Historical sources are all remains past life, all evidence of the past. Currently, there are four main groups of historical sources: 1) material; 2) written; 3) visual (fine-graphic, fine-art, fine-natural); 4) phonic. Historians, studying historical sources, examine all facts without exception.

The collected factual material requires its own explanation, clarification of the reasons for the development of society. This is how theoretical concepts are developed. Thus, on the one hand, it is necessary to know specific facts, on the other hand, to comprehend all the facts in order to identify the causes and patterns of development of society. So, for example, in different time Historians have explained in different ways the reasons and patterns of development of the history of our country. Chroniclers since the time of Nestor believed that the world develops according to divine providence and divine will. With the advent of rationalistic knowledge, historians began to look for objective factors as the determining force of the historical process. Thus, M.V. Lomonosov (1711-1765) and V.N. Tatishchev (1686-1750), who stood at the origins of Russian historical science, believed that knowledge and enlightenment determine the course of the historical process. the main idea, permeating the works of N. M. Karamzin (1766-1826) “History of the Russian State”, is the need for a wise autocracy for Russia. The largest Russian historian of the 19th century. S. M. Solovyov (1820-1870) (“History of Russia since ancient times”) saw the course of history in the transition from tribal relations to the family and further to statehood. Three most important factors: the nature of the country, the nature of the tribe and the course of external events, as the historian believed, objectively determined the course of Russian history. S. M. Solovyov’s student V. O. Klyuchevsky (1841-1911) (“Russian History Course”), developing the ideas of his teacher, believed that it was necessary to identify the entire set of facts and factors (geographical, ethnic, economic, social, political, etc.) characteristic of each period. Close to him in theoretical views was S. F. Platonov (1850-1933). His “Lectures on Russian History”, like the works of N. M. Karamzin, S. M. Solovyov, V. O. Klyuchevsky, were reprinted several times.

History performs several socially significant functions. 1). The cognitive (cognitive) function comes from knowledge of the historical process as a social branch of scientific knowledge, from theoretical generalization historical facts, identifying main trends social development. It contributes to the understanding and explanation of historical processes and phenomena. The cognitive function is intellectually developing, since it consists in the very study of the historical path of countries, peoples and in the objectively true, from the position of historicism, reflection of all the phenomena and processes that make up the history of mankind. 2). Practical political function. Its essence lies in the fact that history as a science helps to develop a scientifically based political course and avoid subjective decisions. The practical-political function involves using the lessons of the past to improve the lives of human communities in the present and future. 3). Worldview function. History creates a documented, accurate narrative of outstanding events of the past, thereby shaping the public worldview. Worldview - a view of the world, society, the laws of its development, can be scientific if it is based on objective reality. In social development, objective reality is historical facts. History, as a science, realizing its ideological function, creates the foundation on which to obtain objective information about the past. In order for the conclusions of history to become scientific, it is necessary to study all the facts related to a given process in their integrity, only then can we obtain an objective picture and ensure the scientific nature of knowledge. 4). Educational function. History has a huge educational impact. Knowledge of the history of one’s people and world history forms a civic quality - patriotism; shows the role of the people and individuals in the development of society; allows us to understand the moral and moral values ​​of humanity in their development, to understand such categories as honor, duty to society.

Currently, there are two main approaches to the study of history - formational and civilizational.

The formational approach was developed by K. Marx and F. Engels. Its meaning lies in the natural change of socio-economic formations. They proceeded from the fact that the material activity of people always appears in the form specific method production. The mode of production is the unity of productive forces and production relations. Productive forces include objects of labor, means of labor and people. Consequently, productive forces are the content of the mode of production, and production relations are the form. As the content changes, the form also changes. This happens through revolution. And accordingly, different social - economic formations. According to these formations, the following stages of development of society are distinguished: primitive communal, slaveholding, feudal, capitalist, communist. The disadvantages of the formational approach can be considered that many processes of cultural and spiritual life are sometimes considered in a simplified manner. Insufficient attention is paid to the role of the individual in history, human factor, as well as the fact that the transition from one formation to another through revolution is absolutized (some peoples did not go through all formations and changes do not always occur through revolutions).

The civilizational approach implies the spiritual and cultural sphere as the main criterion. The concept of civilization has many meanings. There are as many interpretations of this concept as there are authors. The word "civilization" was originally used with three common meanings. The first is a synonym for culture, the second is the stage of social development following barbarism, the third is the level, stage of social development of material and spiritual culture. There are more than a hundred definitions of the term “civilization.” However, for a civilizational approach to the historical process, it is of great importance to understand civilization as an integral social system, all of whose components are closely interconnected and bear the stamp of the originality of a particular civilization and has an independent internal mechanism of functioning. The weakness of the civilizational approach is that it does not allow us to look at history as a holistic, natural process; using a civilizational approach it is difficult to study patterns historical development.

One of the important problems of historical science is the problem of periodization of the development of human society. Generally, world history It is customary to divide it into four main periods: 1). Ancient world(the period from the separation of man from the animal world about 2 million years ago until the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 AD). 2) The Middle Ages (the period from the fall of the Western Roman Empire to the beginning of the Renaissance in the 16th century). 3). Modern times (from the Renaissance to 1918 - the end of the First World War). 4). Modern times(from 1919 to the present day).

A number of auxiliary historical disciplines have emerged that develop general questions of the methodology and technology of historical research. Among them: 1. Paleography studies handwritten monuments and ancient writing; 2. Numismatics deals with the study of coins, medals, orders, and monetary systems; 3. Sphragistics studies seals; 4. Toponymy deals with origins geographical names; 5. Local history studies the history of the area, region, region; 6. Genealogy explores the origins of cities and families; 7. Heraldry studies the coats of arms of countries, cities, and individuals; 8. Epigraphy examines inscriptions on stone, clay, metal; 9. Source studies deals with the study of historical sources; 10. Historiography considers its main range of issues to be the description and analysis of the views, ideas and concepts of historians, the study of patterns in the development of historical science; and etc.

Literature

1. Kirillov, V.V. History of Russia / V.V. Kirillov. - M: Yurait-Izdat, 2005. - P. 9-15.

2. Orlov, A.S., Georgiev N.G., Sivokhina T.A. History of Russia / A.S. Orlov, N.G. Georgiev, T.A. Sivokhina. - M: TK Welby, 2003. P. 5.

3. Polyak, G.B., Markova A.N. World History / G.B. Polyak, A.N. Markova. - M: Culture and Sports, UNITY, 2000. pp. 4-5.

a) providing assistance statesmen in choosing guidelines in their activities

b) formation of civil liability

c) study historical experience humanity and our people

d) theoretical generalization of historical facts and events

Principles of historical science

a) social approach

b) universal approach

c) historicism

d) sequences

d) problematic

6. Establishing connections and relationships between phenomena and processes occurring at the same time in different places - method

a) comparative historical

b) periodization

c) problem-chronological

d) synchronous

7. Study of phenomena at the highest stage of their development - method

a) logical

b) historical

c) retrospective

d) statistical

8. Russian historian who believed that the course of history is determined by 3 factors: the nature of the country, the nature of the tribe, the course of external events

a) M.V. Lomonosov

b) I. Bayer

c) N.M. Karamzin

d) I.Ya. Froyanov

d) S.M. Soloviev

Option II

The subject of Russian history is

a) patterns of development of human society in its past and present

b) the population of Russia at different stages of historical development

c) patterns of socio-economic and political development Russia and its peoples

2. A set of works devoted to any problems or individual issues of historical science - __________________________________

3. Cognitive function of historical knowledge –

a) theoretical generalization of historical facts and events

b) identifying the main trends in the development of the historical process

c) development of a scientifically based course of foreign and domestic policy states

d) formation of a scientific worldview based on the study of the past and present of human society

e) formation of national dignity and citizenship

4. System of principles and research methods –

a) historiography

b) dialectical-materialist method

c) methodology

d) dialectics

e) historiosophy

Principles of historical science

a) universal approach

b) objectivity

c) determinism

d) systematic

e) social approach

The study of history by periods or eras, and within them - by problems - method

a) problem-chronological

b) synchronous

c) logical

d) chronological-problematic

7. The study of one side of the life of society in its consistent development - method

a) chronological

b) problem-chronological

c) chronological-problematic

d) system-structural

The first Russian historian

a) M.V. Lomonosov

b) I. Bayer

c) G. Miller

d) V.N. Tatishchev

d) V.O. Klyuchevsky

Literature

Basic textbooks and teaching aids

1. Zuev M.N. History of Russia: textbook. allowance. – M.: Yurait – Publishing House, 2009. – 634 p.

Educational literature

electronic library system "LAN"

(access from EBS "LAN")

1. Krivosheev M.V., Khodyakov M.V. National history. [electronic resource] - M.: Publishing house "Urayt", 2010. - 191 p.

additional literature

1. Zakharevich A.V. History of the Fatherland: Textbook. – M.: Publishing and trading corporation “Dashkov and K”, 2004. – P. 3 – 16.

2. History of Russia IX – XX centuries: Textbook / Ed. G.A. Ammona, N.P. Ionicheva. – M.: INFRA-M, 2002. – P. 3 – 25.

3. History of Russia. Textbook. Second edition, revised and expanded / Orlov A.S., Georgiev V.A., Georgieva N.G., Sivokhina T.A. – M.: TK Velby LLC, 2002. – P. 3 – 6.

4. History of Russia: Textbook / A.A. Chernobaev, I.E. Gorelov, M.N. Zuev et al.; Ed. M.N. Zueva, A.A. Chernobaeva. – 2nd ed., revised. and additional – M.: Higher. school, 2004. – P. 5 – 9.

5. Source study: Theory. Story. Method. Sources of Russian history: Textbook. allowance / I.N. Danilevsky and others - M.: Russian. state humanist univ., 1998. – 702 p.

6. Kuznetsov I.N. Domestic history: Textbook. – M.: Publishing and trading corporation “Dashkov and K”, 2004. –800 p.

7. Munchaev Sh.M., Ustinov V.M. History of Russia: Textbook for universities. – 3rd ed., rev. and additional - M.: Norma, 2004. – P. 1 – 12.

8. Philosophy of history: Anthology. A manual for students. humanist universities / Comp. Yu.A. Kiseleva. – M.: JSC “Aspect Press”, 1994. – 351 p.

Periodicals

1. Durnovtsev V.I. Historiosophy of the historian // Russian history. - 2009. - No. 4. - P. 181-184.

Internet resources

1. Website Oral History http://www.newlocalhistory.com/ustnaya/

2. Website Digital library"Lan" http://www.e.lanbook.com

Seminar No. 2

East Slavs,

History is the science of the development of human society. The subject of studying the history of phenomena. actions of individuals, humanity, the totality of relationships in society.

According to the breadth of study of the object, history is divided: history of the world, history of continents (for example Africa), history of individual countries and peoples. Branches of historical knowledge are distinguished: civil, political, history of state and law, government controlled, economic history, religion, culture, music, language, literature, military, social. Historical sciences also include ethnography, which studies the life and culture of peoples, and archeology, which studies history from material sources. Auxiliary historical disciplines contribute to a deeper understanding of the historical process as a whole: chronology, paleography, numismatics, sphragistics - seals; epigraphy - inscriptions on stones, clay, metal; genealogy - the origin of cities and surnames; toponymy - the origin of geographical names; local history, source studies, historiography,

History interacts with other sciences, such as psychology, sociology, philosophy, legal sciences, literature, etc. In contrast, history examines the process of development of society as a whole, analyzes the entire set of phenomena of social life, all its aspects (economics, politics, culture, life, etc.).

The main task of history is to study the specific conditions, stages and forms of development of phenomena and processes of the past. History is designed to reflect the reality of the past at its key points.

The story performs somewhat socially significant functions: first - educational, intellectually developing, consists in studying the historical path of our country, people and in an objectively true, from the standpoint of historicism, reflection of all the phenomena and processes that make up the history of Russia.

Second function - practical-political. Its essence is that history as a science, identifying patterns of social development on the basis of a theoretical understanding of historical facts, helps to develop a scientifically based political course and avoid subjective decisions.

Third function - ideological. History creates documented, accurate stories about outstanding events of the past, about thinkers to whom society owes its development. History is the foundation on which the science of society is based.

History has a huge educational influence. Knowledge of the history of one’s people and world history forms civic qualities - patriotism and internationalism; shows the role of the individual in the development of society; see the vices of society and people, their influence on human destinies. The study of history teaches one to think in historical categories, to see society in development, to evaluate the phenomena of social life in relation to their past and relate it to the subsequent course of events.



Civil responsibility for the historical destinies of our peoples and nations obliges us to carefully understand the causes of social unrest that give rise to serious political crises. And for this you need to find out social functions knowledge of history. Without this, it is impossible to restore and preserve the national past, its place and role in the great drama of world history. People, nation, nationality without historical memory are doomed to degradation. They cannot and should not give up their past, because then they will have no future. Each state, each country has its own history, which is an integral part of the history of mankind. Therefore, without knowing the history of Russia, it is hardly possible to imagine the multifaceted and complex process of world history. In this regard, it is important to understand what functions the Russian history course performs.

The following functions are most clearly manifested: cognitive, intellectual and developmental; practical-political; ideological.

Cognitive, intellectual and developmental function comes from knowledge of the historical process as a social branch of scientific knowledge; from a theoretical generalization of historical facts, identifying the main trends in the social development of history. In scientific language, the word “history” is very often used as a process, movement in time and as a process of cognition in time. In the course of the history of Russia, we will be interested in the processes of origin, formation and functioning Russian state at various stages of its history. In this regard, the cognitive function of history consists in the very study of the historical path of the Russian state, knowledge of all its sides, phenomena, events and facts.

Practical-political function is that history as a science, identifying patterns of social development on the basis of a theoretical understanding of historical facts, helps to deeply comprehend a scientifically based political course, thereby avoiding subjective decisions of a political nature. At the same time, knowledge of history helps determine the optimal policy for leading the masses and interaction with them of various parties and movements.

Worldview function When studying history, it largely determines the formation of a scientific worldview. This is understandable, since history provides documented accurate data about the events of the past, based on various sources. People turn to the past in order to better understand modern life and the trends inherent in it. It is necessary to take into account that world history conducts a strict selection of events, facts, names, leaving chronicles of those that influenced the fate of civilization and culture. At each stage of world development, milestones and milestones are identified that, due to their impact on the entire historical process, have acquired decisive significance. You can't imagine the story Ancient Rome without a slave uprising under the leadership of Spartacus, the history of the Middle Ages - without major uprisings against feudal lords, new story- without the Paris Commune, modern history XX century - without the October Revolution and the events that followed it. In this regard, knowledge of history equips people with an understanding of historical perspective. History cannot be modernized or adjusted to existing concepts and schemes. Incorrectly, biasedly described and studied history will never teach anyone anything. Moreover, it is harmful, because the worst thing for socio-political practice is orientation towards distorted historical experience.

The history of Russia is characterized by educational function. Studying the history of Russia, like the history of any other country, instills in the people moral qualities, helps to instill skills in humane policies aimed at realizing the interests of the majority of the people. Knowledge of history actively shapes such civic qualities as patriotism and internationalism; allows you to know the moral and ethical qualities and values ​​of humanity in their development; understand categories such as honor, duty to society, human happiness and goodness. At the same time, knowledge of history allows us to better understand the vices of society, political leaders, and their influence on human destinies.

Finally, the study of history makes it possible to find out what interests are reflected in the policies of certain political parties, social groups, and their leaders, and to correlate class and social interests with universal ones, to show the priority of universal human interests using specific examples of socio-political phenomena. And this is very important, first of all, because in modern conditions of political and ideological struggle there remains a serious gap between the growing politicization of all aspects of social life" and the real level of political knowledge and political culture. It would be naive to believe that politics does not influence history, especially in its turning points.

Meanwhile, it is one thing to have certain political sympathies (there is nothing special about this), but to remain on the basis of an objective presentation of facts, and quite another thing to turn history into a “handmaiden” of political preferences. In this sense, the true truth of history is always better than silence or emotions. But the real truth of history requires not only special respect and careful attitude towards oneself. The truth of history is extremely complex and multifaceted. Therefore, it is very important, when setting oneself the task of a comprehensive scientific development of history, to strive for an objective knowledge of the history of Russia.

History is the science that studies the past different countries and peoples.

Taking into account the guilt of the victim and the property status of the person who caused the harm.

Active or passive actions are possible when causing harm.

Damage that arose as a result of the intent of the victim is not subject to compensation.

If the degree of guilt of the victim contributed to the increase in harm. Then, depending on the degree of his guilt, the amount of compensation may be reduced.

If there was gross negligence of the victim and there was no fault of the victim, if there is liability without fault, then the amount of compensation may be reduced or compensation for damage may be refused altogether.

If harm is caused to the life or health of a citizen, refusal or exemption from compensation for harm is not allowed.

If the causer is a citizen, then the court may reduce the amount of damage based on his property status, except in cases where the damage was caused intentionally

The subject of history As a science, there is a need to understand historical reality. The need to know the past in order not to repeat the mistakes of the past. And here scientists—historians—come to the fore, trying to understand historical reality.

The task of a historian, like any other scientist, is to search for truth. The process of comprehending the truth is extremely complex and difficult. On this path, a scientist may encounter failures. Due to the complexity of the problem, lack of facts, etc. he, wanting to come to the truth, without noticing it, may fall into error. But in addition to purely cognitive difficulties, the scientist faces other dangers, the sources of which are outside the boundaries of science.

To know history there are few facts, you need information about them. The historical past is reconstructed by scientists using objects of material culture, written sources, or some other basis.

History is a multifaceted science. Archeology was once an auxiliary discipline, but has now become a science that studies objects of material culture, which is important for the reconstruction of real events. In addition to archeology, there are other auxiliary disciplines within the framework of historical science - numismatics (the study of coins and monetary systems), heraldry (the science of family signs), linguistics (the study of languages) and a number of other disciplines. Historical science does not close itself off, but opens the door to collaboration with those scientists who help history.

First - educational , intellectually developing, consisting in the very study of the historical path of countries, peoples and in the objectively true, from the position of historicism, reflection of all the phenomena and processes that make up the history of mankind.
Second function-practical-political. Its essence is that history as a science, identifying patterns of social development on the basis of a theoretical understanding of historical facts, helps to develop a scientifically based political course and avoid subjective decisions.
Third function – ideological. History creates documented, accurate stories about outstanding events of the past, about thinkers to whom society owes its development. A worldview - a view of the world, society, the laws of its development - can be scientific if it is based on objective reality.