Mongol-Tatar yoke. The Great Mongol Empire: Rise and Fall

The main reason for the dispute that arose around the size of the Mongol army lies in the fact that historians of the 13th-14th centuries, whose works should rightfully become the primary source, unanimously explained the unprecedented success of the nomads by overwhelming numbers. In particular, the Hungarian Dominican missionary Julian noted that the Mongols “have such a multitude of fighters that it can be divided into forty parts, and there is no power on earth that would be able to withstand one part of them.”

If the Italian traveler Giovanni del Plano Carpini writes that Kyiv was besieged by 600 thousand pagans, then the Hungarian historian Simon notes that 500 thousand Mongol-Tatar warriors invaded Hungary.

They also said that the Tatar horde occupied a space of twenty days' journey in length and fifteen in width, i.e. That is, it will take 70 days to get around it.

It’s probably time to write a few words about the term “Tatars”. In the bloody struggle for power over Mongolia, Genghis Khan inflicted a brutal defeat on the Mongolian Tatar tribe. In order to avoid revenge and ensure a peaceful future for their offspring, all the Tatars who turned out to be taller than the axle of the cart wheel were eliminated. From this we can conclude that the Tatars as an ethnic group ceased to exist by the beginning of the 13th century.

The cruelty of the decision made is quite understandable from the standpoint and moral principles of that era. The Tatars at one time, trampling all the laws of the steppe, violated hospitality and poisoned the father of Genghis Khan - Yesugei-baatur. Long before this, the Tatars, having betrayed the interests of the Mongol tribes, participated in the capture of the Mongol Khan Khabul by the Chinese, who executed him with sophisticated cruelty.

In general, the Tatars often acted as allies of the Chinese emperors.
It’s a paradox, but Asian and European peoples collectively called all Mongolian tribes Tatars. Ironically, it was under the name of the Tatar tribe they destroyed that the Mongols became known to the whole world.

Borrowing these figures, the mere mention of which makes one shiver, the authors of the three-volume “History of the Mongolian People's Republic” claim that 40 tumens of warriors went to the West.
Pre-revolutionary Russian historians tend to name mind-boggling numbers. In particular, N. M. Karamzin, the author of the first generalizing work on the history of Russia, writes in his “History of the Russian State”:

“Batiyev’s strength was incomparably superior to ours and was the only reason his success. In vain do new historians talk about the superiority of the Mughals (Mongols) in military affairs: the ancient Russians, for many centuries fighting either with foreigners or with fellow citizens, were not inferior both in courage and in the art of exterminating people to any of the then European nations. But the squads of the Princes and the city did not want to unite, they acted especially, and in a very natural way could not resist half a million Batyev: for this conqueror constantly multiplied his army, adding to it the vanquished.”

S. M. Solovyov determines the size of the Mongol army at 300 thousand soldiers.

The military historian of the period of Tsarist Russia, Lieutenant General M.I. Ivanin writes that the Mongol army initially consisted of 164 thousand people, but by the time of the invasion of Europe it had reached a grandiose figure of 600 thousand people. These included numerous detachments of prisoners performing technical and other auxiliary work.

Soviet historian V.V. Kargalov writes: “The figure of 300 thousand people, which was usually called by pre-revolutionary historians, is controversial and inflated. Some information that allows us to roughly judge the size of Batu’s army is contained in the “Collection of Chronicles” of the Persian historian Rashid ad-Din. The first volume of this extensive historical work provides a detailed list of the Mongol troops that remained after the death of Genghis Khan and were distributed among his heirs.

In total, the great Mongol Khan left “one hundred twenty-nine thousand people” to his sons, brothers and nephews. Rashid ad-Din not only determines the total number of Mongol troops, but also indicates which of the khans - the heirs of Chingns Khan - and how they received warriors under their subordination. Therefore, knowing which khans took part in Batu’s campaign, we can roughly determine the total number of Mongol warriors who were with them on the campaign: there were 40-50 thousand of them. It must be taken into account, however, that in the “Collection of Chronicles” we are talking only about the Mongol troops themselves, purebred Mongols, and, in addition them in the army The Mongol khans had many warriors from conquered countries. According to the Italian Plano Carpini, Batu’s warriors from the conquered peoples made up approximately ¾ of the army. Thus, the total number of the Mongol-Tatar army prepared for the campaign against the Russian principalities can be determined at 120-140 thousand people. This figure is confirmed by the following considerations. Usually, on campaigns, the khans, descendants of Genghis, commanded a “tumen,” that is, a detachment of 10 thousand horsemen. In Batu’s campaign against Rus', according to the testimony of Eastern historians, 12-14 “Genghisid” khans took part, who could lead 12-14 “tumens” (i.e. 120-140 thousand people).”

“Such a size of the Mongol-Tatar army is quite sufficient to explain the military successes of the conquerors. In the conditions of the 13th century, when an army of several thousand people already represented a significant force, the army of more than a hundred thousand Mongol khans provided the conquerors with overwhelming superiority over the enemy. Let us remember, by the way, that the troops of the crusader knights, which united, essentially speaking, a significant part of the military forces of all the feudal states of Europe, never exceeded 100 thousand people. What forces could oppose the feudal principalities of North-Eastern Rus' to the hordes of Batu?”

Let's listen to the opinions of other researchers.

Danish historian L. de Hartog in his work “Genghis Khan - Ruler of the World” notes:
“Batu Khan’s army consisted of 50 thousand soldiers, the main forces of which went to the west. By order of Ogedei, the ranks of this army were replenished with additional units and detachments. It is believed that in the army of Batu Khan, which set out on the campaign, there were 120 thousand people, the majority of whom were representatives of the Turkic peoples, but the entire command was in the hands of purebred Mongols.”

N. Ts. Munkuev, based on his research, concludes:
“The eldest sons of all Mongols, including the owners of appanages, khan’s sons-in-law and khan’s wives, were sent on a campaign against Rus' and Europe. If we assume that the Mongol troops during this period consisted<…>out of 139 thousand units of five people, then, assuming that each family consisted of five people, the army of Batu and Subedei numbered about 139 thousand soldiers.”

E. Khara-Davan in his book “Genghis Khan as a commander and his legacy,” first published in 1929 in Belgrade, but which has not lost its value to this day, writes that in the army of Batu Khan, which set off to conquer Rus', there were from 122 to 150 thousand people in the combat element.

In general, almost all Soviet historians unanimously believed that the figure of 120-150 thousand soldiers was the most realistic. This figure also found its way into the works of modern researchers.

Thus, A.V. Shishov in his work “One Hundred Great Military Leaders” notes that Batu Khan led 120-140 thousand people under his banners.

It seems that the reader will undoubtedly be interested in excerpts from one research work. A. M. Ankudinova and V. A. Lyakhov, who set out to prove (if not with facts, then with words) that the Mongols, only thanks to their numbers, were able to break the heroic resistance of the Russian people, write: “In the fall of 1236, the huge hordes of Batu, numbering about 300 thousand people fell on Volga Bulgaria. The Bulgars defended themselves courageously, but were overwhelmed by the enormous numerical superiority of the Mongol-Tatars. In the fall of 1237, Batu's troops reached the Russian borders.<…>Ryazan was taken only when there was no one left to defend it. All the soldiers led by Prince Yuri Igorevich died, all the inhabitants were killed. The Grand Duke of Vladimir Yuri Vsevolodovich, who did not respond to the call of the Ryazan princes to act together against the Mongol-Tatars, now found himself in a difficult situation. True, he used the time while Batu stayed on Ryazan land and gathered a significant army. Having won a victory near Kolomna, Batu moved towards Moscow... Despite the fact that the Mongols had an overwhelming numerical superiority, they were able to take Moscow in five days. The defenders of Vladimir inflicted significant damage on the Mongol-Tatars. But the enormous numerical superiority took its toll, and Vladimir fell. Batu's troops moved from Vladimir in three directions. The defenders of Pereyaslavl-Zalessky courageously met the Mongol-Tatar invaders. Over the course of five days, they repulsed several furious attacks by the enemy, who had many times superior forces. But the enormous numerical superiority of the Mongol-Tatars took its toll, and they broke into Pereyaslavl-Zalessky.”

I think it is useless and unnecessary to comment on what was quoted.

Historian J. Fennell asks: “How did the Tatars manage to defeat Rus' so easily and quickly?” and he himself answers: “It is necessary, of course, to take into account the size and extraordinary strength of the Tatar army. The conquerors undoubtedly had a numerical superiority over their opponents." However, he notes that it is incredibly difficult to even give the most approximate estimate of the number of Batu Khan’s troops and believes that the most likely figure is the one indicated by the historian V.V. Kargalov.
Buryat researcher Y. Khalbay in his book “Genghis Khan is a genius” provides the following data. Batu Khan's army consisted of 170 thousand people, of which 20 thousand Chinese were in
technical parts. However, he did not provide facts to prove these figures.

English historian J.J. Saunders in his study " Mongol conquests" indicates a figure of 150 thousand people.
If the “History of the USSR”, published in 1941, says that the Mongolian army consisted of 50 thousand soldiers, then the “History of Russia”, published six decades later, indicates a slightly different figure, but within acceptable limits - 70 thousand . Human.

In recent works on this topic, Russian researchers tend to put the figure at 60-70 thousand people. In particular, B.V. Sokolov in the book “One Hundred Great Wars” writes that Ryazan was besieged by a 60,000-strong Mongol army. Since Ryazan was the first Russian city located on the path of the Mongol troops, we can conclude that this is the number of all Batu Khan’s warriors.

Published in Russia in 2003, “History of the Fatherland” is the fruit of the joint work of a team of authors and indicates the figure of the Mongol army at 70 thousand soldiers.

G.V. Vernadsky, who wrote a major work on the history of Rus' during the era of the Mongol-Tatar yoke, writes that the core of the Mongol army probably amounted to 50 thousand soldiers. With the newly formed Turkic formations and various auxiliary troops, the total number could be 120 thousand and even more, but due to the huge territories to be controlled and garrisoned, during the invasion the strength of Batu's field army in his main campaign was hardly more than 50 thousand in each phase.

The famous scientist L. N. Gumilyov writes:

“The Mongol forces gathered for the western campaign turned out to be small. Of the 130 thousand soldiers they had, 60 thousand had to be sent to permanent service in China, another 40 thousand went to Persia to suppress the Muslims, and 10 thousand soldiers were constantly at headquarters. Thus, a corps of ten thousand remained for the campaign. Realizing its insufficiency, the Mongols carried out emergency mobilization. The eldest son from each family was taken into service.”

However, the total number of troops that went to the west hardly exceeded 30-40 thousand people. After all, when crossing several thousand kilometers, you cannot get by with one horse. Each warrior must have, in addition to a riding horse, also a pack horse. And for an attack, a war horse was necessary, because fighting on a tired or untrained horse is tantamount to suicide. Troops and horses were required to transport siege weapons. Consequently, there were at least 3-4 horses per rider, which means that a detachment of thirty thousand had to have at least 100 thousand horses. It is very difficult to feed such livestock when crossing the steppes. Carry provisions for people and fodder for large quantity It was impossible to take animals with us. That is why the figure of 30-40 thousand seems to be the most realistic estimate of the Mongol forces during the western campaign.

Despite the fact that Sergei Bodrov’s film “Mongol” caused great criticism in Mongolia, his film clearly showed the military art the ancient Mongols possessed, when a small cavalry detachment could defeat a huge army.

A.V. Venkov and S.V. Derkach in their joint work “Great Commanders and Their Battles” note that Batu Khan gathered 30 thousand people under his banners (4 thousand of them Mongols). These researchers could have borrowed this figure from I. Ya. Korostovets.
Experienced Russian diplomat I. Ya. Korostovets, who served in Mongolia during one of the most vulnerable periods of our history - in the 1910s. - in his grandiose study “From Genghis Khan to the Soviet Republic. Short story Mongolia, taking into account modern times, writes that Batu Khan’s invading army consisted of 30 thousand people.

Summarizing the above, we can conclude that historians name approximately three groups of figures: from 30 to 40 thousand, from 50 to 70 thousand and from 120 to 150 thousand. The fact that the Mongols, even having mobilized the conquered peoples, could not field an army of 150 thousand , already a fact. Despite the highest decree of Ogedei, it is unlikely that every family had the opportunity to send their eldest son to the West. After all, the campaigns of conquest had lasted for more than 30 years, and the Mongols’ human resources were already meager. After all, hiking affected every family to one degree or another. But an army of 30,000, with all its valor and heroism, could hardly have conquered several principalities in a dizzyingly short period of time.

In our opinion, taking into account the mobilization of the eldest sons and conquered peoples, there were from 40 to 50 thousand soldiers in Batu’s army.

Along the way, we criticize the prevailing opinions about the large number of Mongols who went on a campaign under the banner of the grandson of Chingisov, and about the hundreds of thousands of prisoners whom the conquerors allegedly led before them, due to the following historical facts:

Firstly, did the residents of Ryazan dare to enter into an open battle with the Mongols, if in fact there were more than 100 thousand of them? Why didn't they consider it prudent to sit outside the city walls and try to hold out the siege?
Secondly, why? guerrilla warfare“Only 1,700 warriors of Evpatiy Kolovrat alarmed Batu Khan to such an extent that he decided to pause the offensive and first deal with the “troublemaker”? Had Batu Khan had an army 100 times larger than Evpatiy’s army, he would hardly have heard of such a commander. The fact that even 1,700 uncompromisingly minded patriots became a force to be reckoned with for the Mongols indicates that Batu Khan could not lead the “beloved darkness” under his banners.
Thirdly, the people of Kiev, contrary to the customs of war, put to death the ambassadors of Munke Khan, who came to the city demanding surrender. Only a side confident in its invincibility will dare to take such a step. This was the case in 1223 before the Battle of Kalka, when the Russian princes, confident in their strength, condemned the Mongol ambassadors to death. Anyone who does not believe in his own strength would never kill other people's ambassadors.
Fourthly, in 1241 the Mongols covered more than 460 km in Hungary in three incomplete days. Such examples are numerous. Is it possible to travel such a distance in such a short time with numerous prisoners and other non-combat equipment? But not only in Hungary, in general for the entire period of the campaign of 1237-1242. The advance of the Mongols was so rapid that they always won in time and appeared, like the god of war, where they were not expected at all, thereby bringing their victory closer. Moreover, not one of the great conquerors could have captured even an inch of land with an army whose ranks were replenished with motley and non-combatant elements.

A good example of this is Napoleon. Only the French brought him victories. And he did not win a single war, fighting with an army replenished with representatives of conquered peoples. What was the cost of the adventure in Russia - the so-called “invasion of twelve languages”.

The Mongols complemented the small numbers of their army with the perfection of military tactics and efficiency. The description of the Mongol tactics by the English historian Harold Lamb is of interest:

• “1. The kurultai, or main council, met at the headquarters of Kha-Khan. All senior military leaders were to attend it, with the exception of those who were given permission to remain in the active army. The emerging situation and the plan for the upcoming war were discussed there. Routes were chosen and various corps were formed
• 2. Spies were sent to the enemy guards and “tongues” were obtained.
• 3. The invasion of the enemy’s country was carried out by several armies in different directions. Each separate division or army corps (tumen) had its own commander, who moved with the army towards the intended goal. He was given complete freedom of action within the limits of the task given to him, with close communication through a courier with the headquarters of the supreme leader or orkhon.
• 4. When approaching significantly fortified cities, troops left a special corps to monitor them. Supplies were collected in the surrounding area and, if necessary, a temporary base was set up. The Mongols rarely simply placed a barrier in front of a well-fortified city; more often than not, one or two tumens began to invest and siege it, using prisoners and siege engines for this purpose, while the main forces continued to advance.
• 5. When a meeting in the field with an enemy army was foreseen, the Mongols usually adhered to one of the following two tactics: they either tried to attack the enemy by surprise, quickly concentrating the forces of several armies on the battlefield, as was the case with the Hungarians in 1241, or, if the enemy turned out to be vigilant and surprise could not be counted on; they directed their forces in such a way as to bypass one of the enemy flanks. This maneuver was called “tulugma,” or standard coverage.”

The Mongols strictly adhered to this tactic during their campaigns of conquest, including during the invasion of Rus' and European countries.

Most history textbooks say that in the 13th-15th centuries Rus' suffered from the Mongol-Tatar yoke. However, recently the voices of those who doubt that the invasion even took place have been increasingly heard. Did huge hordes of nomads really surge into peaceful principalities, enslaving their inhabitants? Let's analyze historical facts, many of which may be shocking.

The yoke was invented by the Poles

The term “Mongol-Tatar yoke” itself was coined by Polish authors. The chronicler and diplomat Jan Dlugosz in 1479 called the time of existence of the Golden Horde this way. He was followed in 1517 by the historian Matvey Miechowski, who worked at the University of Krakow. This interpretation of the relationship between Rus' and the Mongol conquerors was quickly picked up in Western Europe, and from there it was borrowed by domestic historians.

Moreover, there were practically no Tatars themselves in the Horde troops. It’s just that in Europe the name of this Asian people was well known, and therefore it spread to the Mongols. Meanwhile, Genghis Khan tried to exterminate the entire Tatar tribe, defeating their army in 1202.

The first census of Rus'

The first population census in the history of Rus' was carried out by representatives of the Horde. They had to collect accurate information about the inhabitants of each principality and their class affiliation. The main reason for such interest in statistics on the part of the Mongols was the need to calculate the amount of taxes imposed on their subjects.

In 1246, a census took place in Kyiv and Chernigov, the Ryazan principality was subjected to statistical analysis in 1257, the Novgorodians were counted two years later, and the population of the Smolensk region - in 1275.

Moreover, the inhabitants of Rus' raised popular uprisings and drove out the so-called “besermen” who were collecting tribute for the khans of Mongolia from their land. But the governors of the rulers of the Golden Horde, called Baskaks, lived and worked for a long time in the Russian principalities, sending collected taxes to Sarai-Batu, and later to Sarai-Berke.

Joint hikes

Princely squads and Horde warriors often carried out joint military campaigns, both against other Russians and against residents of Eastern Europe. Thus, in the period 1258-1287, the troops of the Mongols and Galician princes regularly attacked Poland, Hungary and Lithuania. And in 1277, the Russians took part in the Mongol military campaign in the North Caucasus, helping their allies conquer Alanya.

In 1333, Muscovites stormed Novgorod, and the next year the Bryansk squad marched on Smolensk. Each time, Horde troops also took part in these internecine battles. In addition, they regularly helped the great princes of Tver, considered at that time the main rulers of Rus', to pacify the rebellious neighboring lands.

The basis of the horde were Russians

The Arab traveler Ibn Battuta, who visited the city of Saray-Berke in 1334, wrote in his essay “A Gift to Those Contemplating the Wonders of Cities and the Wonders of Wanderings” that there are many Russians in the capital of the Golden Horde. Moreover, they make up the bulk of the population: both working and armed.

This fact was also mentioned by the White émigré author Andrei Gordeev in the book “History of the Cossacks,” which was published in France in the late 20s of the 20th century. According to the researcher, most of the Horde troops were the so-called Brodniks - ethnic Slavs who inhabited the Azov region and the Don steppes. These predecessors of the Cossacks did not want to obey the princes, so they moved to the south for the sake of a free life. The name of this ethnosocial group probably comes from the Russian word “wander” (wander).

As is known from chronicle sources, in the Battle of Kalka in 1223, the Brodniks, led by the governor Ploskyna, fought on the side of the Mongol troops. Perhaps his knowledge of the tactics and strategy of the princely squads had great importance to defeat the united Russian-Polovtsian forces.

In addition, it was Ploskynya who, by cunning, lured out the ruler of Kyiv, Mstislav Romanovich, along with two Turov-Pinsk princes and handed them over to the Mongols for execution.

However, most historians believe that the Mongols forced Russians to serve in their army, i.e. the invaders forcibly armed representatives of the enslaved people. Although this seems implausible.

And a senior researcher at the Institute of Archeology of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Marina Poluboyarinova, in the book “Russian People in the Golden Horde” (Moscow, 1978) suggested: “Probably, the forced participation of Russian soldiers in the Tatar army later ceased. There were mercenaries left who had already voluntarily joined the Tatar troops.”

Caucasian invaders

Yesugei-Baghatur, the father of Genghis Khan, was a representative of the Borjigin clan of the Mongolian Kiyat tribe. According to the descriptions of many eyewitnesses, both he and his legendary son were tall, fair-skinned people with reddish hair.

The Persian scientist Rashid ad-Din wrote in his work “Collection of Chronicles” (beginning of the 14th century) that all the descendants of the great conqueror were mostly blond and gray-eyed.

This means that the elite of the Golden Horde belonged to Caucasians. It is likely that representatives of this race predominated among other invaders.

There weren't many of them

We are accustomed to believe that in the 13th century Rus' was invaded by countless hordes of Mongol-Tatars. Some historians talk about 500,000 troops. However, it is not. After all, even the population of modern Mongolia barely exceeds 3 million people, and if we take into account the brutal genocide of fellow tribesmen committed by Genghis Khan on his way to power, the size of his army could not be so impressive.

It is difficult to imagine how to feed an army of half a million, moreover, traveling on horses. The animals simply would not have enough pasture. But each Mongolian horseman brought with him at least three horses. Now imagine a herd of 1.5 million. The horses of the warriors riding at the forefront of the army would eat and trample everything they could. The remaining horses would have starved to death.

According to the most daring estimates, the army of Genghis Khan and Batu could not have exceeded 30 thousand horsemen. While the population of Ancient Rus', according to historian Georgy Vernadsky (1887-1973), before the invasion was about 7.5 million people.

Bloodless executions

The Mongols, like most peoples of that time, executed people who were not noble or disrespected by cutting off their heads. However, if the condemned person enjoyed authority, then his spine was broken and left to slowly die.

The Mongols were sure that blood was the seat of the soul. To shed it means to complicate the afterlife path of the deceased to other worlds. Bloodless execution was applied to rulers, political and military figures, and shamans.

The reason for a death sentence in the Golden Horde could be any crime: from desertion from the battlefield to petty theft.

The bodies of the dead were thrown into the steppe

The method of burial of a Mongol also directly depended on his social status. Rich and influential people found peace in special burials, in which valuables, gold and silver jewelry, and household items were buried along with the bodies of the dead. And the poor and ordinary soldiers killed in battle were often simply left in the steppe, where their life’s journey ended.

In the alarming conditions of nomadic life, consisting of regular skirmishes with enemies, it was difficult to organize funeral rites. The Mongols often had to move on quickly, without delay.

It was believed that the corpse worthy person will be quickly eaten by scavengers and vultures. But if birds and animals did not touch the body for a long time, according to popular beliefs, this meant that the soul of the deceased had a grave sin.

MONGOL YOKE(Mongol-Tatar, Tatar-Mongol, Horde) - the traditional name for the system of exploitation of Russian lands by nomadic conquerors who came from the East from 1237 to 1480.

According to Russian chronicles, these nomads were called “Tatarov” in Rus' after the name of the most active and active tribe of Otuz-Tatars. It became known since the conquest of Beijing in 1217, and the Chinese began to call all the occupying tribes that came from the Mongolian steppes by this name. Under the name “Tatars,” the invaders entered Russian chronicles as a general concept for all eastern nomads who devastated Russian lands.

The yoke began during the years of conquest of Russian territories (the battle of Kalka in 1223, the conquest of northeastern Rus' in 1237–1238, the invasion of southern Russia in 1240 and southwestern Rus' in 1242). It was accompanied by the destruction of 49 Russian cities out of 74, which was a heavy blow to the foundations of urban Russian culture - handicraft production. The yoke led to the liquidation of numerous monuments of material and spiritual culture, the destruction of stone buildings, and the burning of monastery and church libraries.

The date of the formal establishment of the yoke is considered to be 1243, when the father of Alexander Nevsky was the last son of Vsevolod the Big Nest, Prince. Yaroslav Vsevolodovich accepted from the conquerors a label (certifying document) for the great reign in the Vladimir land, in which he was called “senior to all other princes in the Russian land.” At the same time, the Russian principalities, defeated by Mongol-Tatar troops several years earlier, were not considered directly included in the empire of the conquerors, which in the 1260s received the name Golden Horde. They remained politically autonomous and retained a local princely administration, the activities of which were controlled by permanent or regularly visiting representatives of the Horde (Baskaks). Russian princes were considered tributaries of the Horde khans, but if they received labels from the khans, they remained officially recognized rulers of their lands. Both systems - tributary (collection of tribute by the Horde - “exit” or, later, “yasak”) and issuance of labels - consolidated the political fragmentation of Russian lands, increased rivalry between the princes, contributed to the weakening of ties between the northeastern and northwestern principalities and lands from the south and southwestern Russia, which became part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Poland.

The Horde did not maintain a permanent army on the Russian territory they conquered. The yoke was supported by the dispatch of punitive detachments and troops, as well as repressions against disobedient rulers who resisted the implementation of administrative measures conceived at the khan's headquarters. Thus, in Rus' in the 1250s, particular dissatisfaction was caused by the conduct of a general census of the population of Russian lands by the Baskaks, the “numbered”, and later by the establishment of underwater and military conscription. One of the ways to influence the Russian princes was the system of taking hostages, leaving one of the princes’ relatives at the khan’s headquarters, in the city of Sarai on the Volga. At the same time, the relatives of obedient rulers were encouraged and released, while the obstinate ones were killed.

The Horde encouraged the loyalty of those princes who compromised with the conquerors. Thus, for Alexander Nevsky’s willingness to pay a “way out” (tribute) to the Tatars, he not only received the support of the Tatar cavalry in the battle with the German knights on Lake Peipsi 1242, but also ensured that his father, Yaroslav, received the first label for the great reign. In 1259, during a rebellion against the “numerals” in Novgorod, Alexander Nevsky ensured that the census was carried out and even provided guards (“watchmen”) for the Baskaks so that they would not be torn to pieces by the rebellious townspeople. For the support provided to him, Khan Berke refused the forced Islamization of the conquered Russian territories. Moreover, the Russian Church was exempt from paying tribute (“exit”).

When the first, most difficult time of introducing the khan's power into Russian life had passed, and the top of Russian society (princes, boyars, merchants, church) found mutual language With the new government, the entire burden of paying tribute to the combined forces of the conquerors and the old masters fell on the people. The waves of popular uprisings described by the chronicler constantly arose for almost half a century, starting from 1257–1259, the first attempt at an all-Russian census. Its implementation was entrusted to Kitata, a relative of the Great Khan. Uprisings against the Baskaks repeatedly occurred everywhere: in the 1260s in Rostov, in 1275 in the southern Russian lands, in the 1280s in Yaroslavl, Suzdal, Vladimir, Murom, in 1293 and again, in 1327, in Tver. Elimination of the Baska system after the participation of the troops of the Moscow prince. Ivan Danilovich Kalita in the suppression of the Tver uprising of 1327 (from that time on, the collection of tribute from the population was entrusted, in order to avoid new conflicts, to the Russian princes and their subordinate tax farmers) did not stop paying tribute as such. Temporary relief from them was obtained only after the Battle of Kulikovo in 1380, but already in 1382 the payment of tribute was restored.

The first prince who received the great reign without the ill-fated “label”, on the rights of his “fatherland”, was the son of the winner of the Horde in the Battle of Kulikovo. Vasily I Dmitrievich. Under him, the “exit” to the Horde began to be paid irregularly, and Khan Edigei’s attempt to restore the previous order of things by capturing Moscow (1408) failed. Although during the feudal war of the mid-15th century. The Horde made a series of new devastating invasions of Rus' (1439, 1445, 1448, 1450, 1451, 1455, 1459), but they were no longer able to restore their dominion over. The political unification of the Russian lands around Moscow under Ivan III Vasilyevich created the conditions for the complete elimination of the yoke; in 1476 he refused to pay tribute at all. In 1480, after the unsuccessful campaign of the Khan of the Great Horde Akhmat (“Standing on the Ugra” 1480), the yoke was finally overthrown.

Modern researchers differ significantly in their assessments of the Horde's more than 240-year rule over Russian lands. The very designation of this period as “yoke” in relation to Russian and Slavic history in general was introduced by the Polish chronicler Dlugosz in 1479 and since then has been firmly entrenched in Western European historiography. In Russian science, this term was first used by N.M. Karamzin (1766–1826), who believed that it was the yoke that held back the development of Rus' in comparison with Western Europe: “The shadow of the barbarians, darkening the horizon of Russia, hid Europe from us at the very time when beneficial information and skills multiplied more and more in her.” The same opinion about the yoke as a restraining factor in the development and formation of all-Russian statehood, the strengthening of eastern despotic tendencies in it, was also shared by S.M. Solovyov and V.O. Klyuchevsky, who noted that the consequences of the yoke were the ruin of the country, a long lag behind Western Europe, irreversible changes in cultural and socio-psychological processes. This approach to assessing the Horde yoke also dominated in Soviet historiography (A.N. Nasonov, V.V. Kargalov).

Scattered and rare attempts to revise the established point of view met with resistance. The works of historians working in the West were critically received (primarily G.V. Vernadsky, who saw in the relationship between the Russian lands and the Horde a complex symbiosis, from which each people gained something). The concept of the famous Russian Turkologist L.N. Gumilyov, who tried to destroy the myth that nomadic peoples brought nothing but suffering to Rus' and were only robbers and destroyers of material and spiritual values, was also suppressed. He believed that the tribes of nomads from the East who invaded Rus' were able to establish a special administrative order that ensured the political autonomy of the Russian principalities, saved their religious identity (Orthodoxy), and thereby laid the foundations for religious tolerance and the Eurasian essence of Russia. Gumilyov argued that the result of the conquests of Rus' at the beginning of the 13th century. it was not a yoke, but a kind of alliance with the Horde, recognition by the Russian princes of the supreme power of the khan. At the same time, the rulers of neighboring principalities (Minsk, Polotsk, Kyiv, Galich, Volyn) who did not want to recognize this power found themselves conquered by the Lithuanians or Poles, became part of their states and were subjected to centuries-long Catholicization. It was Gumilyov who first pointed out that the ancient Russian name for nomads from the East (among whom the Mongols predominated) - “Tatarov” - cannot offend the national feelings of modern Volga (Kazan) Tatars living on the territory of Tatarstan. Their ethnic group, he believed, did not bear historical responsibility for the actions of nomadic tribes from the steppes of Southeast Asia, since the ancestors of the Kazan Tatars were the Kama Bulgars, Kipchaks and partly the ancient Slavs. Gumilev connected the history of the emergence of the “myth of the yoke” with the activities of the creators of the Norman theory - German historians who served in the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences in the 18th century and distorted the real facts.

In post-Soviet historiography, the question of the existence of the yoke still remains controversial. A consequence of the growing number of supporters of Gumilyov’s concept was the appeal to the President of the Russian Federation in 2000 to cancel the celebration of the anniversary of the Battle of Kulikovo, since, according to the authors of the appeals, “there was no yoke in Rus'.” According to these researchers, supported by the authorities of Tatarstan and Kazakhstan, in the Battle of Kulikovo, united Russian-Tatar troops fought with the usurper of power in the Horde, Temnik Mamai, who proclaimed himself khan and gathered under his banner the mercenary Genoese, Alans (Ossetians), Kasogs (Circassians) and Polovtsians

Despite the debatability of all these statements, the fact of significant mutual influence of the cultures of peoples who have lived in close political, social and demographic contacts for almost three centuries is undeniable.

Lev Pushkarev, Natalya Pushkareva

Golden Horde- one of the saddest pages in Russian history. Some time after the victory in Battle of Kalka, the Mongols began to prepare a new invasion of Russian lands, having studied the tactics and characteristics of the future enemy.

Golden Horde.

The Golden Horde (Ulus Juni) was formed in 1224 as a result of the division Mongol Empire Genghis Khan between his sons to the western and eastern parts. The Golden Horde became the western part of the empire from 1224 to 1266. Under the new khan, Mengu-Timur became virtually (although not formally) independent from the Mongol Empire.

Like many states of that era, in the 15th century it experienced feudal fragmentation and as a result (and there were a lot of enemies offended by the Mongols) to XVI century finally ceased to exist.

In the 14th century, Islam became the state religion of the Mongol Empire. It is noteworthy that in the territories under their control the Horde khans (including in Rus') did not particularly impose their religion. The concept of “Golden” became established among the Horde only in the 16th century because of the golden tents of its khans.

Tatar-Mongol yoke.

Tatar-Mongol yoke , as well as Mongol-Tatar yoke, - not entirely true from a historical point of view. Genghis Khan considered the Tatars his main enemies, and destroyed most of them (almost all) tribes, while the rest submitted to the Mongol Empire. The number of Tatars in the Mongol troops was scanty, but due to the fact that the empire occupied all former lands Tatars, the troops of Genghis Khan began to be called Tatar-Mongolian or Mongol-Tatar conquerors. In reality, it was about Mongol yoke.

So, the Mongol, or Horde, yoke is a system of political dependence of Ancient Rus' on the Mongol Empire, and a little later on the Golden Horde as a separate state. The complete elimination of the Mongol yoke occurred only at the beginning of the 15th century, although the actual one was somewhat earlier.

The Mongol invasion began after the death of Genghis Khan Batu Khan(or Khan Batu) in 1237. The main Mongol troops converged on the territories near present-day Voronezh, which had previously been controlled by the Volga Bulgars until they were almost destroyed by the Mongols.

In 1237, the Golden Horde captured Ryazan and destroyed the entire Ryazan principality, including small villages and towns.

In January-March 1238, the same fate befell the Vladimir-Suzdal principality and Pereyaslavl-Zalessky. The last to be taken were Tver and Torzhok. There was a threat of taking the Novgorod principality, but after the capture of Torzhok on March 5, 1238, less than 100 km from Novgorod, the Mongols turned around and returned to the steppes.

Until the end of 38, the Mongols only made periodic raids, and in 1239 they moved to Southern Rus' and took Chernigov on October 18, 1239. Putivl (the scene of “Yaroslavna’s Lament”), Glukhov, Rylsk and other cities in the territory of present-day Sumy, Kharkov and Belgorod regions were destroyed.

This year Ögedey(the next ruler of the Mongol Empire after Genghis Khan) sent additional troops to Batu from Transcaucasia and in the fall of 1240 Batu Khan besieged Kyiv, having previously plundered all the surrounding lands. The Kyiv, Volyn and Galician principalities at that time were ruled by Danila Galitsky, son of Roman Mstislavovich, who at that moment was in Hungary, unsuccessfully trying to conclude an alliance with the Hungarian king. Perhaps later, the Hungarians regretted their refusal to Prince Danil, when Batu's Horde captured all of Poland and Hungary. Kyiv was taken by early December 1240 after several weeks of siege. The Mongols began to control most of Rus', including even those areas (on an economic and political level) that they did not capture.

Kyiv, Vladimir, Suzdal, Tver, Chernigov, Ryazan, Pereyaslavl and many other cities were completely or partially destroyed.

An economic and cultural decline set in in Rus' - this explains the almost complete absence of chronicles of contemporaries, and as a result - a lack of information for today's historians.

For some time, the Mongols were distracted from Rus' due to raids and invasions of Polish, Lithuanian, Hungarian and other European lands.

Today we will talk about something very “slippery” from the point of view modern history and science, but no less interesting topic. This is the question I raised ihoraksjuta “now let’s move on, the so-called Tatar-Mongol yoke, I don’t remember where I read it, but there was no yoke, these were all the consequences of the baptism of Rus', the bearer of the faith of Christ fought with those who did not want, well, as usual, with sword and blood, remember the Crusades hiking, can you tell us more about this period?”

Controversy over the history of the invasion Tatar-Mongol and the consequences of their invasion, the so-called yoke, do not disappear, probably will never disappear. Under the influence of numerous critics, including Gumilyov’s supporters, new, interesting facts began to be woven into the traditional version of Russian history Mongol yoke that I would like to develop. As we all remember from our school history course, the prevailing point of view is still the following:

In the first half of the 13th century, Russia was invaded by the Tatars, who came to Europe from Central Asia, in particular China and Central Asia, which they had already conquered by this time. The dates are precisely known to our Russian historians: 1223 - Battle of Kalka, 1237 - fall of Ryazan, 1238 - defeat of the united forces of the Russian princes on the banks of the City River, 1240 - fall of Kyiv. Tatar-Mongol troops destroyed individual squads of the princes of Kievan Rus and subjected it to a monstrous defeat. The military power of the Tatars was so irresistible that their dominance continued for two and a half centuries - until the “Standing on the Ugra” in 1480, when the consequences of the yoke were eventually completely eliminated, the end came.

For 250 years, that’s how many years, Russia paid tribute to the Horde in money and blood. In 1380, Rus' for the first time since the invasion of Batu Khan gathered forces and gave battle to the Tatar Horde on the Kulikovo field, in which Dmitry Donskoy defeated the temnik Mamai, but from this defeat all the Tatar-Mongols did not happen at all, this was, so to speak, a won battle in lost war. Although even the traditional version of Russian history says that there were practically no Tatar-Mongols in Mamai’s army, only local nomads from the Don and Genoese mercenaries. By the way, the participation of the Genoese suggests the participation of the Vatican in this issue. Today, new data, as it were, has begun to be added to the known version of Russian history, but intended to add credibility and reliability to the already existing version. In particular, there are extensive discussions about the number of nomadic Tatars - Mongols, the specifics of their martial art and weapons.

Let's evaluate the versions that exist today:

I suggest starting with a very interesting fact. Such a nationality as Mongol-Tatars does not exist, and did not exist at all. Mongols And Tatar The only thing they have in common is that they roamed the Central Asian steppe, which, as we know, is large enough to accommodate any nomadic people, and at the same time give them the opportunity not to intersect on the same territory at all.

The Mongol tribes lived at the southern tip of the Asian steppe and often raided China and its provinces, as the history of China often confirms to us. While other nomadic Turkic tribes, called from time immemorial in Rus' Bulgars ( Volga Bulgaria), settled in the lower reaches of the Volga River. In those days in Europe they were called Tatars, or TatAriev(the strongest of the nomadic tribes, unbending and invincible). And the Tatars, the closest neighbors of the Mongols, lived in the northeastern part of modern Mongolia, mainly in the area of ​​Lake Buir Nor and up to the borders of China. There were 70 thousand families, making up 6 tribes: Tutukulyut Tatars, Alchi Tatars, Chagan Tatars, Queen Tatars, Terat Tatars, Barkuy Tatars. The second parts of the names are apparently the self-names of these tribes. There is not a single word among them that sounds close to the Turkic language - they are more consonant with Mongolian names.

Two related peoples - the Tatars and the Mongols - waged a war of mutual destruction for a long time with varying success, until Genghis Khan did not seize power throughout Mongolia. The fate of the Tatars was predetermined. Since the Tatars were the killers of Genghis Khan’s father, destroyed many tribes and clans close to him, and constantly supported the tribes opposing him, “then Genghis Khan (Tei-mu-Chin) ordered the general massacre of the Tatars and not leave even one alive until the limit determined by law (Yasak); so that women and small children should also be killed, and the wombs of pregnant women should be cut open in order to completely destroy them. …”.

That is why such a nationality could not threaten the freedom of Rus'. Moreover, many historians and cartographers of that time, especially Eastern European ones, “sinned” to call all indestructible (from the point of view of Europeans) and invincible peoples TatAriev or simply in Latin TatArie.
This can be easily seen from ancient maps, for example, Map of Russia 1594 in the Atlas of Gerhard Mercator, or Maps of Russia and TarTaria Ortelius.

One of the fundamental axioms of Russian historiography is the assertion that for almost 250 years, the so-called “Mongol-Tatar yoke” existed on the lands inhabited by the ancestors of the modern East Slavic peoples - Russians, Belarusians and Ukrainians. Allegedly, in the 30s - 40s of the 13th century, the ancient Russian principalities were subjected to a Mongol-Tatar invasion under the leadership of the legendary Batu Khan.

The fact is that there are numerous historical facts that contradict the historical version of the “Mongol-Tatar yoke.”

First of all, even the canonical version does not directly confirm the fact of the conquest of the northeastern ancient Russian principalities by Mongol-Tatar invaders - supposedly these principalities became vassals of the Golden Horde ( public education, which occupied a large territory in the southeast of Eastern Europe and Western Siberia, founded by the Mongol prince Batu). They say that the army of Khan Batu made several bloody predatory raids on these very northeastern ancient Russian principalities, as a result of which our distant ancestors decided to go “under the arm” of Batu and his Golden Horde.

However, historical information is known that the personal guard of Khan Batu consisted exclusively of Russian soldiers. A very strange circumstance for the lackey vassals of the great Mongol conquerors, especially for the newly conquered people.

There is indirect evidence of the existence of Batu’s letter to the legendary Russian prince Alexander Nevsky, in which the all-powerful khan of the Golden Horde asks the Russian prince to take in his son and make him a real warrior and commander.

Some sources also claim that Tatar mothers in the Golden Horde frightened their naughty children with the name of Alexander Nevsky.

As a result of all these inconsistencies, the author of these lines in his book “2013. Memories of the Future” (“Olma-Press”) puts forward a completely different version of the events of the first half and mid-13th century on the territory of the European part of the future Russian Empire.

According to this version, when the Mongols, at the head of nomadic tribes (later called Tatars), reached the northeastern ancient Russian principalities, they actually entered into quite bloody military clashes with them. But Khan Batu did not achieve a crushing victory; most likely, the matter ended in a kind of “battle draw.” And then Batu proposed an equal military alliance to the Russian princes. Otherwise, it is difficult to explain why his guard consisted of Russian knights, and why Tatar mothers frightened their children with the name of Alexander Nevsky.

All these horror stories about the “Tatar-Mongol yoke” were composed much later, when the Moscow kings had to create myths about their exclusivity and superiority over the conquered peoples (the same Tatars, for example).

Even in the modern school curriculum, this historical moment is briefly described as follows: “At the beginning of the 13th century, Genghis Khan gathered a large army of nomadic peoples, and, subordinating them to strict discipline, decided to conquer the whole world. Having defeated China, he sent his army to Rus'. In the winter of 1237, the army of “Mongol-Tatars” invaded the territory of Rus', and subsequently defeating the Russian army on the Kalka River, went further, through Poland and the Czech Republic. As a result, having reached the shores of the Adriatic Sea, the army suddenly stops and, without completing its task, turns back. From this period the so-called “ Mongol-Tatar yoke"over Russia.

But wait, they were going to conquer the whole world... so why didn't they go further? Historians answered that they were afraid of an attack from behind, defeated and plundered, but still strong Rus'. But this is just funny. Will the plundered state run to defend other people's cities and villages? Rather, they will rebuild their borders and wait for the return of the enemy troops in order to fight back fully armed.
But the weirdness doesn't end there. For some unimaginable reason, during the reign of the House of Romanov, dozens of chronicles describing the events of the “time of the Horde” disappear. For example, “The Tale of the Destruction of the Russian Land,” historians believe that this is a document from which everything that would indicate the Ige was carefully removed. They left only fragments telling about some kind of “trouble” that befell Rus'. But there is not a word about the “invasion of the Mongols.”

There are many more strange things. In the story “about the evil Tatars” the khan from Golden Horde orders the execution of a Russian Christian prince... for refusing to worship the “pagan god of the Slavs!” And some chronicles contain amazing phrases, for example: “ Well, with God! - said the khan and, crossing himself, galloped towards the enemy.
So, what really happened?

At that time, the “new faith” was already flourishing in Europe, namely Faith in Christ. Catholicism was widespread everywhere, and governed everything, from the way of life and the system, to the state system and legislation. At that time, crusades against infidels were still relevant, but along with military methods, “tactical tricks” were often used, akin to bribing authorities and inducing them to their faith. And after receiving power through the purchased person, the conversion of all his “subordinates” to the faith. Just so secret crusade and then took place in Rus'. Through bribery and other promises, church ministers were able to seize power over Kiev and nearby regions. Just relatively recently, by the standards of history, the baptism of Rus' took place, but history is silent about the civil war that arose on this basis immediately after the forced baptism. And the ancient Slavic chronicle describes this moment as follows:

« And the Vorogs came from overseas, and they brought faith in alien gods. With fire and sword they began to implant in us an alien faith, shower the Russian princes with gold and silver, bribe their will, and lead them astray from the true path. They promised them an idle life, full of wealth and happiness, and remission of any sins for their dashing deeds.

And then Ros broke up into different states. The Russian clans retreated to the north to the great Asgard, and named their empire after the names of their patron gods, Tarkh Dazhdbog the Great and Tara, his Sister the Light-Wise. (They called her the Great TarTaria). Leaving the foreigners with the princes purchased in the Principality of Kiev and its environs. Volga Bulgaria also did not bow to its enemies, and did not accept their alien faith as its own.
But the Principality of Kiev did not live in peace with TarTaria. They began to conquer the Russian lands with fire and sword and impose their alien faith. And then the military army rose up for a fierce battle. In order to preserve their faith and reclaim their lands. Both old and young then joined the Ratniki in order to restore order to the Russian Lands.”

And so began the war, in which the Russian army, the lands Great Aria (motherArias) defeated the enemy and drove him out of the original Slavic lands. It drove away the alien army, with their fierce faith, from its stately lands.

By the way, the word Horde translated by initial letters ancient Slavic alphabet, means Order. That is, the Golden Horde is not a separate state, it is a system. "Political" system of the Golden Order. Under which Princes reigned locally, planted with the approval of the Commander-in-Chief of the Defense Army, or in one word they called him HAN(our defender).
This means that there was not more than two hundred years of oppression, but there was a time of peace and prosperity Great Aria or TarTaria. By the way, modern history also has confirmation of this, but for some reason no one pays attention to it. But we will definitely pay attention, and very closely:

The Mongol-Tatar yoke is a system of political and tributary dependence of the Russian principalities on the Mongol-Tatar khans (until the early 60s of the 13th century, the Mongol khans, after the khans of the Golden Horde) in the 13th-15th centuries. The establishment of the yoke became possible as a result of the Mongol invasion of Rus' in 1237-1241 and occurred for two decades after it, including in lands that were not devastated. In North-Eastern Rus' it lasted until 1480. (Wikipedia)

Battle of the Neva (July 15, 1240) - a battle on the Neva River between the Novgorod militia under the command of Prince Alexander Yaroslavich and the Swedish army. After the victory of the Novgorodians, Alexander Yaroslavich received the honorary nickname “Nevsky” for his skillful management of the campaign and courage in battle. (Wikipedia)

Don’t you think it’s strange that the battle with the Swedes is taking place right in the middle of the invasion? Mongol-Tatars"to Rus'? Burning in fires and plundered " Mongols"Rus is attacked by the Swedish army, which safely drowns in the waters of the Neva, and at the same time the Swedish crusaders do not encounter the Mongols even once. And those who win are strong Swedish army Are the Russians losing to the Mongols? In my opinion, this is just nonsense. Two huge armies are fighting on the same territory at the same time and never intersect. But if you turn to the ancient Slavic chronicles, then everything becomes clear.

Since 1237 Rat Great TarTaria began to win back their ancestral lands, and when the war was coming to an end, the losing representatives of the church asked for help, and the Swedish crusaders were sent into battle. Since it was not possible to take the country by bribery, then they will take it by force. Just in 1240 the army Hordes(that is, the army of Prince Alexander Yaroslavovich, one of the princes of the ancient Slavic family) clashed in battle with the army of the Crusaders, who came to the rescue of their minions. Having won the Battle of the Neva, Alexander received the title of Prince of the Neva and remained to rule Novgorod, and the Horde Army went further to drive the adversary out of the Russian lands completely. So she persecuted “the church and the alien faith” until she reached the Adriatic Sea, thereby restoring her original ancient borders. And having reached them, the army turned around and went north again. Having installed 300 year period of peace.

Again, confirmation of this is the so-called end of Yig « Battle of Kulikovo"before which 2 knights took part in the match Peresvet And Chelubey. Two Russian knights, Andrei Peresvet (superior light) and Chelubey (beating the forehead, Telling, narrating, asking) Information about which was cruelly cut out from the pages of history. It was Chelubey’s loss that foreshadowed the victory of the army of Kievan Rus, restored with the money of the same “Churchmen” who nevertheless penetrated Rus' from the dark, albeit more than 150 years later. It will be later, when all of Rus' is plunged into the abyss of chaos, all sources confirming the events of the past will be burned. And after the Romanov family came to power, many documents will take on the form we know.

By the way, this is not the first time that the Slavic army defends its lands and expels infidels from its territories. Another extremely interesting and confusing moment in History tells us about this.
Army of Alexander the Great, consisting of many professional warriors, was defeated by a small army of some nomads in the mountains north of India (Alexander’s last campaign). And for some reason, no one is surprised by the fact that a large trained army that crossed half the world and redrew the world map was so easily broken by an army of simple and uneducated nomads.
But everything becomes clear if you look at the maps of that time and just even think about who the nomads who came from the north (from India) could have been. These are precisely our territories, which originally belonged to the Slavs, and where to this day the remains of civilization are found EtRusskov.

The Macedonian army was pushed back by the army Slavyan-Ariev who defended their territories. It was at that time that the Slavs “for the first time” walked to the Adriatic Sea, and left a huge mark on the territories of Europe. Thus, it turns out that we are not the first to conquer “half the globe.”

So how did it happen that even now we do not know our history? Everything is very simple. The Europeans, trembling with fear and horror, never ceased to be afraid of the Rusichs, even when their plans were crowned with success and they enslaved the Slavic peoples, they were still afraid that one day Rus' would rise up and shine again with its former strength.

At the beginning of the 18th century, Peter the Great founded Russian Academy Sci. Over the 120 years of its existence, there were 33 academic historians in the historical department of the Academy. Of these, only three were Russians (including M.V. Lomonosov), the rest were Germans. It turns out that the history of Ancient Rus' was written by the Germans, and many of them did not know not only the way of life and traditions, they did not even know the Russian language. This fact is well known to many historians, but they do not make any effort to carefully study the history that the Germans wrote and get to the bottom of the truth.
Lomonosov wrote a work on the history of Rus', and in this field he often had disputes with his German colleagues. After his death, the archives disappeared without a trace, but somehow his works on the history of Rus' were published, but under the editorship of Miller. At the same time, it was Miller who oppressed Lomonosov in every possible way during his lifetime. Computer analysis confirmed that Lomonosov’s works on the history of Rus' published by Miller are falsifications. Little remains of Lomonosov's works.

This concept can be found on the website of Omsk State University:

We will formulate our concept, hypothesis immediately, without
preliminary preparation of the reader.

Let's pay attention to the following strange and very interesting
data. However, their strangeness is based only on generally accepted
chronology and the version of ancient Russian instilled in us from childhood
stories. It turns out that changing the chronology removes many oddities and
<>.

One of the main moments in the history of ancient Rus' is this:
called the Tatar-Mongol conquest by the Horde. Traditionally
it is believed that the Horde came from the East (China? Mongolia?),
captured many countries, conquered Rus', swept to the West and
even reached Egypt.

But if Rus' had been conquered in the 13th century with any
was on the sides - or from the east, as modern ones claim
historians, or from the West, as Morozov believed, then they should
remain information about the clashes between the conquerors and
Cossacks who lived both on the western borders of Rus' and in the lower reaches
Don and Volga. That is, exactly where they were supposed to pass
conquerors.

Of course, in school courses on Russian history we are intensively
they convince that the Cossack troops allegedly arose only in the 17th century,
allegedly due to the fact that the slaves fled from the power of the landowners to
Don. However, it is known, although this is usually not mentioned in textbooks,
- that, for example, the Don Cossack state existed STILL IN
XVI century, had its own laws and history.

Moreover, it turns out that the beginning of the history of the Cossacks dates back to
to the XII-XIII centuries. See, for example, the work of Sukhorukov<>in DON magazine, 1989.

Thus,<>, - no matter where she came from, -
moving along the natural path of colonization and conquest,
would inevitably have to come into conflict with the Cossacks
regions.
This is not noted.

What's the matter?

A natural hypothesis arises:
NO FOREIGN
THERE WAS NO CONQUEST OF Rus'. THE HORDE DIDN'T FIGHT WITH THE COSSACKS BECAUSE
THE COSSACKS WERE AN COMPONENT PART OF THE HORDE. This hypothesis was
not formulated by us. It is substantiated very convincingly,
for example, A. A. Gordeev in his<>.

BUT WE ARE SAYING SOMETHING MORE.

One of our main hypotheses is that the Cossacks
the troops not only formed part of the Horde - they were regular
troops of the Russian state. Thus, THE HORDE WAS
JUST A REGULAR RUSSIAN ARMY.

According to our hypothesis, modern terms ARMY and WARRIOR,
- Church Slavonic in origin, - were not Old Russian
terms. They came into constant use in Rus' only with
XVII century. And the old Russian terminology was: Horde,
Cossack, khan

Then the terminology changed. By the way, back in the 19th century
Russians folk proverbs words<>And<>were
interchangeable. This can be seen from the numerous examples given
in Dahl's dictionary. For example:<>and so on.

On the Don there is still the famous city of Semikarakorum, and on
Kuban - Hanskaya village. Let us remember that Karakorum is considered
THE CAPITAL OF GENGIZ KHAN. At the same time, as is well known, in those
places where archaeologists are still persistently searching for Karakorum, there is no
For some reason there is no Karakorum.

In desperation, they hypothesized that<>. This monastery, which existed back in the 19th century, was surrounded
an earthen rampart only about one English mile long. Historians
believe that the famous capital Karakorum was located entirely on
territory subsequently occupied by this monastery.

According to our hypothesis, the Horde is not a foreign entity,
captured Rus' from the outside, but there is simply an Eastern Russian regular
army, which was an integral part of the ancient Russian
state.
Our hypothesis is this.

1) <>IT WAS JUST A WAR PERIOD
MANAGEMENT IN THE RUSSIAN STATE. NO ALIENS Rus'
CONQUERED.

2) THE SUPREME RULER WAS THE COMMANDER-KHAN = TSAR, AND B
IN THE CITIES WERE SITTING CIVIL GOVERNORS - PRINCE WHO WERE DUTY
WERE COLLECTING TRIBUTE IN FAVOR OF THIS RUSSIAN ARMY, FOR ITS
CONTENT.

3) THUS, THE ANCIENT RUSSIAN STATE IS REPRESENTED
A UNITED EMPIRE, IN WHICH THERE WAS A STANDING ARMY CONSISTED OF
PROFESSIONAL MILITARY (HORDE) AND CIVILIAN UNITS THAT DID NOT HAVE
ITS REGULAR TROOPS. SINCE SUCH TROOPS WERE ALREADY PART OF THE
COMPOSITION OF THE HORDE.

4) THIS RUSSIAN-HORDE EMPIRE EXISTED SINCE THE XIV CENTURY
UNTIL THE BEGINNING OF THE 17TH CENTURY. HER STORY ENDED WITH A FAMOUS GREAT
THE TROUBLES IN Rus' AT THE BEGINNING OF THE 17TH CENTURY. AS A RESULT OF THE CIVIL WAR
RUSSIAN HORDA KINGS, THE LAST OF WHICH WAS BORIS
<>, — WERE PHYSICALLY EXTERMINED. AND THE FORMER RUSSIAN
THE ARMY-HORDE ACTUALLY SUFFERED DEFEAT IN THE FIGHT WITH<>. AS A RESULT, POWER IN Rus' CAME TO PRINCIPALLY
NEW PRO-WESTERN ROMANOV DYNASTY. SHE SEIZED POWER AND
IN THE RUSSIAN CHURCH (FILARET).

5) A NEW DYNASTY WAS NEEDED<>,
IDEOLOGICALLY JUSTIFYING ITS POWER. THIS NEW POWER FROM THE POINT
THE VIEW OF THE PREVIOUS RUSSIAN-HORDA HISTORY WAS ILLEGAL. THAT'S WHY
ROMANOV NEEDED TO RADICALLY CHANGE THE COVERAGE OF THE PREVIOUS
RUSSIAN HISTORY. WE NEED TO GIVE THEM WHAT THEM ARE DONE - IT WAS DONE
COMPETENTLY. WITHOUT CHANGING MOST OF THE ESSENTIAL FACTS, THEY COULD BEFORE
UNRECOGNITION WILL DISTORT ENTIRE RUSSIAN HISTORY. SO, PREVIOUS
HISTORY OF Rus'-HORDE WITH ITS CLASS OF FARMERS AND MILITARY
THE CLASS - THE HORDE, WAS DECLARED BY THEM AN ERA<>. AT THE SAME TIME, THERE IS OWN RUSSIAN HORDE-ARMY
TURNED, UNDER THE PENS OF ROMANOV HISTORIANS, INTO MYTHICAL
ALIENS FROM A DISTANT UNKNOWN COUNTRY.

Notorious<>, familiar to us from Romanovsky
history, was simply a GOVERNMENT TAX inside
Rus' for the maintenance of the Cossack army - the Horde. Famous<>, - every tenth person taken into the Horde is simply
state MILITARY RECRUITMENT. It’s like conscription into the army, but only
from childhood - and for life.

Next, the so-called<>, in our opinion,
were simply punitive expeditions to those Russian regions
who for some reason refused to pay tribute =
state filing. Then the regular troops punished
civilian rioters.

These facts are known to historians and are not secret, they are publicly available, and anyone can easily find them on the Internet. Skipping scientific research and justifications, which have already been described quite widely, let us summarize the main facts that refute the big lie about the “Tatar-Mongol yoke.”

1. Genghis Khan

Previously, in Rus', 2 people were responsible for governing the state: Prince And Khan. The prince was responsible for governing the state in peacetime. The khan or “war prince” took the reins of control during war; in peacetime, the responsibility for forming a horde (army) and maintaining it in combat readiness rested on his shoulders.

Genghis Khan is not a name, but a title of “military prince,” which, in the modern world, is close to the position of Commander-in-Chief of the army. And there were several people who bore such a title. The most outstanding of them was Timur, it is he who is usually discussed when they talk about Genghis Khan.

In surviving historical documents, this man is described as a tall warrior with blue eyes, very white skin, powerful reddish hair and a thick beard. Which clearly does not correspond to the signs of a representative of the Mongoloid race, but completely fits the description of the Slavic appearance (L.N. Gumilyov - “Ancient Rus' and the Great Steppe.”).

In modern “Mongolia” there is not a single folk epic that would say that this country once in ancient times conquered almost all of Eurasia, just as there is nothing about the great conqueror Genghis Khan... (N.V. Levashov “Visible and invisible genocide").

2. Mongolia

The state of Mongolia appeared only in the 1930s, when the Bolsheviks came to the nomads living in the Gobi Desert and told them that they were the descendants of the great Mongols, and their “compatriot” had created the Great Empire in his time, which they were very surprised and happy about. . The word "Mughal" is of Greek origin and means "Great". The Greeks used this word to call our ancestors – the Slavs. It has nothing to do with the name of any people (N.V. Levashov “Visible and Invisible Genocide”).

3. Composition of the “Tatar-Mongol” army

70-80% of the army of the “Tatar-Mongols” were Russians, the remaining 20-30% were made up of other small peoples of Rus', in fact, the same as now. This fact is clearly confirmed by a fragment of the icon of Sergius of Radonezh “Battle of Kulikovo”. It clearly shows that the same warriors are fighting on both sides. And this battle is more like civil war than going to war with a foreign conqueror.

4. What did the “Tatar-Mongols” look like?

Note the drawing of the tomb of Henry II the Pious, who was killed on the Legnica field. The inscription is as follows: “The figure of a Tatar under the feet of Henry II, Duke of Silesia, Cracow and Poland, placed on the grave in Breslau of this prince, killed in the battle with the Tatars at Liegnitz on April 9, 1241.” As we see, this “Tatar” has a completely Russian appearance, clothes and weapons. The next image shows “the Khan’s palace in the capital of the Mongol Empire, Khanbalyk” (it is believed that Khanbalyk is supposedly Beijing). What is “Mongolian” and what is “Chinese” here? Once again, as in the case of the tomb of Henry II, before us are people of a clearly Slavic appearance. Russian caftans, Streltsy caps, the same thick beards, the same characteristic blades of sabers called “Yelman”. The roof on the left is an almost exact copy of the roofs of old Russian towers... (A. Bushkov, “Russia that never existed”).

5. Genetic examination

According to the latest data obtained as a result of genetic research, it turned out that Tatars and Russians have very close genetics. While the differences between the genetics of Russians and Tatars from the genetics of the Mongols are colossal: “The differences between the Russian gene pool (almost entirely European) and the Mongolian (almost entirely Central Asian) are really great - it’s like two different worlds..." (oagb.ru).

6. Documents during the period of the Tatar-Mongol yoke

During the period of existence of the Tatar-Mongol yoke, not a single document in the Tatar or Mongolian language has been preserved. But there are many documents from this time in Russian.

7. Lack of objective evidence confirming the hypothesis of the Tatar-Mongol yoke

At the moment there are no originals of any kind historical documents, which would objectively prove that there was a Tatar-Mongol yoke. But there are many fakes designed to convince us of the existence of a fiction called the “Tatar-Mongol yoke.” Here is one of these fakes. This text is called “The Word about the Destruction of the Russian Land” and in each publication it is declared “an excerpt from a poetic work that has not reached us intact... About the Tatar-Mongol invasion”:

“Oh, bright and beautifully decorated Russian land! You are famous for many beauties: you are famous for many lakes, locally revered rivers and springs, mountains, steep hills, high oak forests, clean fields, marvelous animals, various birds, countless great cities, glorious villages, monastery gardens, temples of God and formidable princes, honest boyars and many nobles. You are filled with everything, Russian land, O Orthodox Christian faith!..»

There is not even a hint of the “Tatar-Mongol yoke” in this text. But this “ancient” document contains the following line: “You are filled with everything, Russian land, O Orthodox Christian faith!”

More opinions:

The plenipotentiary representative of Tatarstan in Moscow (1999 - 2010), Doctor of Political Sciences Nazif Mirikhanov, spoke in the same spirit: “The term “yoke” appeared in general only in the 18th century,” he is sure. “Before that, the Slavs did not even suspect that they were living under oppression, under the yoke of certain conquerors.”

"In fact, Russian empire, and then Soviet Union, and now Russian Federation“These are the heirs of the Golden Horde, that is, the Turkic empire created by Genghis Khan, whom we need to rehabilitate, as they have already done in China,” Mirikhanov continued. And he concluded his reasoning with the following thesis: “The Tatars at one time frightened Europe so much that the rulers of Rus', who chose the European path of development, in every possible way dissociated themselves from their Horde predecessors. Today it is time to restore historical justice.”

The result was summed up by Izmailov:

“The historical period, which is commonly called the time of the Mongol-Tatar yoke, was not a period of terror, ruin and slavery. Yes, the Russian princes paid tribute to the rulers from Sarai and received labels for reign from them, but this is ordinary feudal rent. At the same time, the Church flourished in those centuries, and beautiful white stone churches were built everywhere. What was quite natural: scattered principalities could not afford such construction, but only a de facto confederation united under the rule of the Khan of the Golden Horde or Ulus Jochi, as it would be more correct to call our common state with the Tatars.”

Historian Lev Gumilyov, from the book “From Rus' to Russia”, 2008:
“Thus, for the tax that Alexander Nevsky undertook to pay to Sarai, Rus' received a reliable, strong army that defended not only Novgorod and Pskov. Moreover, the Russian principalities that accepted the alliance with the Horde completely retained their ideological independence and political independence. This alone shows that Rus' was not
a province of the Mongol ulus, but a country allied with the Great Khan, which paid a certain tax for the maintenance of the army, which it itself needed.” Nevsky. Nevskaya battle (part 1), Well, also check out and is it really The original article is on the website InfoGlaz.rf Link to the article from which this copy was made -