The core of planet Earth. (Description of the processes of nuclear decay and fusion in the planet's core)
In the center of planet Earth there is a core, it is separated from the surface by layers of crust, magma, and a rather thin layer of half gaseous substance, half liquid. This layer acts as a lubricant and allows the planet's core to rotate almost independently of its main mass.
The top layer of the core consists of a very dense shell. Perhaps this substance is close in its properties to metals, very strong and ductile, and possibly has magnetic properties.
The surface of the planet's core - its hard shell - is very hot to significant temperatures; upon contact with it, the magma passes almost into a gaseous state.
Under the hard shell, the internal substance of the nucleus is in a state of compressed plasma, which mainly consists of elementary atoms (hydrogen) and nuclear fission products - protons, electrons, neutrons and others elementary particles, which are formed as a result of reactions of nuclear fusion and nuclear decay.
Zones of nuclear fusion and decay reactions.
In the core of planet Earth, reactions of nuclear fusion and decay take place, which causes the constant release of large amounts of heat and other types of energy (electromagnetic pulses, various radiations), and also maintains the internal substance of the core constantly in a plasma state.
Earth's core zone - nuclear decay reactions.
Nuclear decay reactions occur in the very center of the planet's core.
It occurs as follows - heavy and super-heavy elements (which are formed in the nuclear fusion zone), since they have greater mass than all steel elements, seem to drown in liquid plasma, and gradually sink into the very center of the planet’s core, where they gain critical mass and enter into a nuclear decay reaction releasing large amounts of energy and nuclear decay products. In this zone, heavy elements act to the state of elementary atoms - the hydrogen atom, neutrons, protons, electrons and other elementary particles.
These elementary atoms and particles, due to the release of high energy at high speeds, fly away from the center of the nucleus to its periphery, where they enter into a nuclear fusion reaction.
Earth's core zone - nuclear fusion reactions.
Elementary hydrogen atoms and elementary particles, which are formed as a result of the nuclear decay reaction in the center of the Earth's core, reach the outer solid shell of the core, where nuclear fusion reactions occur in the immediate vicinity of it, in a layer located under the hard shell.
Protons, electrons and elementary atoms, accelerated to high speeds by the nuclear decay reaction in the center of the planet's core, meet with various atoms that are located on the periphery. It is worth noting that many elementary particles enter into nuclear fusion reactions on their way to the surface of the nucleus.
Gradually, in the nuclear fusion zone, more and more heavier elements are formed, almost the entire periodic table, some of them have the heaviest mass.
In this zone, there is a peculiar division of atoms of substances according to their weight due to the properties of the hydrogen plasma itself, compressed by enormous pressure, which has enormous density, due to the centrifugal force of rotation of the core, and due to the centripetal force of gravity.
As a result of the addition of all these forces, the heaviest metals sink into the plasma of the nucleus and fall into its center to further maintain the continuous process of nuclear fission in the center of the nucleus, and lighter elements tend to either leave the nucleus or settle on its inner part - the hard shell of the nucleus.
As a result, atoms from the entire periodic table gradually enter the magma, which then enter into chemical reactions above the surface of the core, forming complex chemical elements.
Magnetic field of the planet's core.
The magnetic field of the nucleus is formed due to the reaction of nuclear decay in the center of the nucleus due to the fact that the elementary products of nuclear decay, escaping from the central zone of the nucleus, carry along plasma flows in the nucleus, forming powerful vortex flows that twist around the main lines of force magnetic field. Since these plasma flows contain elements with a certain charge, then the strongest electricity, which creates its own electromagnetic field.
The main eddy current (plasma flow) is located in the zone of thermonuclear fusion of the core; all internal matter in this zone moves towards the rotation of the planet in a circle (along the equator of the planet’s core), creating a powerful electromagnetic field.
Rotation of the planet's core.
The rotation of the planet's core does not coincide with the plane of rotation of the planet itself; the axis of rotation of the core is located between the axis of rotation of the planet and the axis connecting the magnetic pluses.
The angular velocity of rotation of the planet's core is greater than the angular velocity of rotation of the planet itself, and is ahead of it.
Balance of nuclear decay and fusion processes in the planet's core.
The processes of nuclear fusion and nuclear decay on the planet are in principle balanced. But according to our observations, this balance can be disturbed in one direction or another.
In the zone of nuclear fusion of the planet's core, an excess of heavy metals can gradually accumulate, which then, falling into the center of the planet in greater quantities than usual, can cause an intensification of the nuclear decay reaction, as a result of which significantly more energy is released than usual, which will affect seismic activity in earthquake-prone areas, as well as volcanic activity on the surface of the Earth.
According to our observations, from time to time a micro-rupture of the solid squirrel of the Earth’s core occurs, which leads to the entry of core plasma into the magma of the planet, and this leads to a sharp increase in its temperature in this place. Above these places, a sharp increase in seismic activity and volcanic activity on the surface of the planet is possible.
Perhaps periods global warming And global cooling associated with the balance of nuclear fusion and nuclear decay processes within the planet. Changes in geological epochs are also associated with these processes.
In our historical period.
According to our observations, there is now an increase in the activity of the planet’s core, an increase in its temperature, and as a result, a heating of the magma that surrounds the planet’s core, as well as an increase in the global temperature of its atmosphere.
This indirectly confirms the acceleration of drift magnetic poles, which indicates that the processes inside the nucleus have changed and moved into a different phase.
The decrease in the strength of the Earth's magnetic field is associated with the accumulation in the planet's magma of substances that screen the Earth's magnetic field, which, naturally, will also affect changes in the regimes of nuclear reactions in the planet's core.
Considering our planet and all the processes on it, we usually operate in our research and forecasts either with physical or energetic concepts, but in some cases, making a connection between one and the other side will give a better understanding of the topics described.
In particular, in the context of the described future evolutionary processes on Earth, as well as the period of serious cataclysms throughout the planet, its core, the processes in it and in the magma layer, as well as the relationship with the surface, biosphere and atmosphere were considered. These processes were considered both at the level of physics and at the level of energy relationships.
The structure of the Earth's core turned out to be quite simple and logical from the point of view of physics; it is generally a closed system with two predominant thermonuclear processes in its different parts, which harmoniously complement each other.
First of all, it must be said that the core is in continuous and very fast motion, this rotation also supports the processes in it.
The very center of the core of our planet is an extremely heavy and compressed complex structure of particles, which, due to centrifugal force, the collision of these particles and constant compression, at a certain moment are divided into lighter and more elementary individual elements. This is the process of thermonuclear decay - in the very middle of the planet's core.
The released particles are carried to the periphery, where the general rapid movement within the core continues. In this part, the particles lag further behind each other in space; colliding at high speeds, they re-form heavier and more complex particles, which are pulled back into the middle of the core by centrifugal force. This is the process of thermonuclear fusion - on the periphery of the Earth's core.
The enormous speeds of movement of particles and the occurrence of the processes described give rise to constant and colossal temperatures.
Here it is worth clarifying some points - firstly, the movement of particles occurs around the axis of rotation of the Earth and along its movement - in the same direction, this is a complementary rotation - of the planet itself with its entire mass and the particles in its core. Secondly, it should be noted that the speed of movement of particles in the core is simply enormous, it is many times higher than the speed of rotation of the planet itself around its axis.
To maintain this system on a permanent basis for as long as desired, you don’t need much; it is enough for any cosmic bodies to hit the Earth from time to time, constantly increasing the mass of our planet in general and the core in particular, while part of its mass leaves with thermal energy and gases through thin sections of the atmosphere into outer space.
In general, the system is quite stable, the question arises - what processes can lead to serious geological, tectonic, seismological, climatic and other disasters on the surface?
Considering the physical component of these processes, the following picture emerges: from time to time, from the peripheral part of the core into the magma, some streams of accelerated particles participating in thermonuclear fusion “shoot” at enormous speed; the huge layer of magma into which they fall, as if extinguishes these “shots” themselves, their density, viscosity, lower temperature - they do not rise to the surface of the planet, but those areas of magma where such emissions occur sharply heat up, begin to move, expand, put more pressure on the earth’s crust, which leads to sharp movements of geological plates, crustal faults, temperature fluctuations, not to mention earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. This can also lead to the sinking of continental plates into the oceans and the rise of new continents and islands to the surface.
The reasons for such minor emissions from the core into the magma may be excessive temperatures and pressures in common system core of the planet, but when we talk about evolutionarily determined catastrophic events everywhere on the planet, about cleaning the living conscious Earth from human aggression and garbage, then we are talking about a conscious intentional act of a living conscious being.
From the point of view of energy and esotericism, the planet gives intentional impulses from the center-awareness-core to the body-magma-lower layer of the Guardians, that is, conditionally, the Titans, to carry out actions to clean up the territories to the surface. Here it is worth mentioning a certain layer between the core and the mantle, just at the level of physics it is a layer of cooling substance, on the one hand corresponding to the characteristics of the core, on the other - magma, which allows for energy information flows in both directions. From an energetic point of view, this is something like a primary “nervous conductive field”, it looks like the crown of the Sun during a total eclipse, it is the connection of the planet’s consciousness with the first and deepest and largest layer of the Earth Guardians, which transmit the impulse further - to smaller and mobile zonal Guardians who implement these processes on the surface. True, during the period of severe cataclysms, the rise of new continents and the redrawing of current continents, partial participation of the Titans themselves is assumed.
Another important thing worth noting here is physical phenomenon, associated with the structure of the core of our planet and the processes occurring in it. This is the formation of the Earth's magnetic field.
The magnetic field is formed as a result of the high speed of movement of particles in orbit inside the Earth's core, and we can say that the Earth's external magnetic field is a kind of hologram that clearly shows the thermonuclear processes occurring inside the planet's core.
The further the magnetic field extends from the center of the planet, the more rarefied it is; inside the planet, near the core, it is orders of magnitude stronger, but inside the core itself it is a monolithic magnetic field.
Answers on questions,
submitted for examination in the discipline “Physico-chemical processes in environment» for third-year students of the specialty “Environmental Management and Audit in Industry”
Abundance of atoms in the environment. Clarks of elements.
Clark element – numerical estimate of the average element content in earth's crust, hydrosphere, atmosphere, the Earth as a whole, various types of rocks, space objects, etc. The Clarke of an element can be expressed in units of mass (%, g/t), or in atomic %. Introduced by Fersman, named after Frank Unglizort, an American geochemist.
Quantitative prevalence chemical elements in the earth's crust was first established by Clark. He also included the hydrosphere and atmosphere in the earth's crust. However, the mass of the hydrosphere is several percent, and the atmosphere is hundredths of a percent of the mass of the solid crust, so the Clark numbers mainly reflect the composition of the solid crust. Thus, in 1889 the clarkes were calculated for 10 elements, in 1924 - for 50 elements.
Modern radiometric, neutron activation, atomic adsorption and other methods of analysis make it possible to determine the content of chemical elements in rocks and minerals with great accuracy and sensitivity. Ideas about Clarks have changed. For example: Ge in 1898 Fox considered the clarke to be equal to n * 10 -10%. Ge was poorly studied and had no practical significance. In 1924, the Clarke for it was calculated as n*10 -9% (Clark and G. Washington). Later, Ge was discovered in coals, and its clarke increased to 0.p%. Ge is used in radio engineering, the search for germanium raw materials, a detailed study of the geochemistry of Ge showed that Ge is not so rare in the earth's crust, its clarke in the lithosphere is 1.4 * 10 -4%, almost the same as that of Sn, As, its much higher more in the earth's crust than Au, Pt, Ag.
The abundance of atoms in
Vernadsky introduced the concept of the dispersed state of chemical elements, and it was confirmed. All elements are present everywhere; we can only talk about the lack of sensitivity of the analysis, which does not allow us to determine the content of one or another element in the environment being studied. This proposition about the general dispersion of chemical elements is called the Clark-Vernadsky law.
Based on the clarks of the elements in the solid earth’s crust (about Vinogradov), almost ½ of the solid earth’s crust consists of O, i.e. The earth’s crust is an “oxygen sphere”, an oxygen substance.
Clarks of most elements do not exceed 0.01-0.0001% - these are rare elements. If these elements have a weak ability to concentrate, they are called sharply scattered (Br, In, Ra, I, Hf).
For example: For U and Br, the clarke values are ≈ 2.5*10 -4, 2.1* 10-4, respectively, but U is simply a rare element, because its deposits are known, and Br is rare, scattered, because it is not concentrated in the earth's crust. Microelements are elements contained in a given system in small quantities (≈ 0.01% or less). Thus, Al is a microelement in organisms and a macroelement in silicate rocks.
Classification of elements according to Vernadsky.
In the earth's crust, elements related according to the periodic table behave differently - they migrate into the earth's crust in different ways. Vernadsky took into account the most important moments in the history of elements in the earth's crust. The main significance was given to such phenomena and processes as radioactivity, reversibility and irreversibility of migration. Ability to provide minerals. Vernadsky identified 6 groups of elements:
noble gases (He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe) – 5 elements;
noble metals (Ru, Rh, Pd, Os, Ir, Pt, Au) – 7 elements;
cyclic elements (participating in complex cycles) – 44 elements;
scattered elements – 11 elements;
highly radioactive elements (Po, Ra, Rn, Ac, Th, Pa, U) – 7 elements;
rare earth elements – 15 elements.
Elements of group 3 by mass predominate in the earth's crust; they mainly consist of rocks, water, and organisms.
Ideas from everyday experience do not match real data. Thus, Zn, Cu are widely distributed in everyday life and technology, and Zr (zirconium) and Ti are rare elements for us. Although Zr in the earth's crust is 4 times more than Cu, and Ti is 95 times more. The “rarity” of these elements is explained by the difficulty of extracting them from ores.
Chemical elements interact with each other not in proportion to their masses, but in accordance with the number of atoms. Therefore, clarks can be calculated not only in mass%, but also in% of the number of atoms, i.e. taking into account atomic masses (Chirvinsky, Fersman). At the same time, the clarks of heavy elements decrease, and those of light elements increase.
For example:Calculation by the number of atoms gives a more contrasting picture of the prevalence of chemical elements - an even greater predominance of oxygen and the rarity of heavy elements.
When the average composition of the earth's crust was established, the question arose about the reason for the uneven distribution of elements. This flock is associated with the structural features of atoms.
Let us consider the connection between the values of clarkes and the chemical properties of elements.
Thus, the alkali metals Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, Fr are chemically close to each other - one valence electron, but the clarke values are different - Na and K - ≈ 2.5; Rb - 1.5*10 -2; Li - 3.2*10 -3 ; Cs – 3.7 * 10 -4 ; Fr – artificial element. The clarke values differ sharply for F and Cl, Br and I, Si (29.5) and Ge (1.4*10 -4), Ba (6.5*10 -2) and Ra (2*10 -10) .
On the other hand, elements that are chemically different have similar clarke values – Mn (0.1) and P (0.093), Rb (1.5*10 -2) and Cl (1.7*10 -2).
Fersman plotted the dependence of the values of atomic clarks for even and odd elements of the Periodic Table on the atomic number of the element. It turned out that as the structure of the atomic nucleus becomes more complex (weighted), the clarke values of elements decrease. However, these dependencies (curves) turned out to be broken.
Fersman drew a hypothetical middle line, which gradually decreased as the ordinal number of the element increased. The scientist called the elements located above the middle line, forming peaks, excess (O, Si, Fe, etc.), and those located below the line - deficient (inert gases, etc.). From the obtained dependence it follows that the earth’s crust is dominated by light atoms, occupying the initial cells of the Periodic Table, the nuclei of which contain a small number of protons and neutrons. Indeed, after Fe (No. 26) there is not a single common element.
Further Oddo (Italian scientist) and Garkins (American scientist) in 1925-28. Another feature of the prevalence of elements was established. The Earth's crust is dominated by elements with even atomic numbers and atomic masses. Among neighboring elements, even-numbered elements almost always have higher clarks than odd-numbered ones. For the 9 most common elements (8 O, 14 Si, 13 Al, 26 Fe, 20 Ca, 11 Na, 19 K, 12 Mg, 22 Ti), the even mass clarkes total 86.43%, and the odd ones – 13.05 %. The clarkes of elements whose atomic mass is divisible by 4 are especially large, these are O, Mg, Si, Ca.
According to Fersman's research, nuclei of type 4q (q is an integer) make up 86.3% of the earth's crust. Less common are nuclei of type 4q+3 (12.7%) and very few nuclei of type 4q+1 and 4q+2 (1%).
Among the even elements, starting with He, every sixth has the highest clarkes: O (No. 8), Si (No. 14), Ca (No. 20), Fe (No. 26). For odd elements - a similar rule (starting with H) - N (No. 7), Al (No. 13), K (No. 19), Mg (No. 25).
So, nuclei with a small and even number of protons and neutrons predominate in the earth's crust.
Over time, the clarks have changed. So, as a result of radioactive decay, there was less U and Th, but more Pb. Processes such as gas dissipation and meteorite fallout also played a role in changing the clarke values of elements.
Main trends chemical changes in the earth's crust. Large cycle of matter in the earth's crust.
CYCLE OF SUBSTANCES. The substance of the earth's crust is in continuous motion, caused by various reasons related to physical and chemical. properties of matter, planetary, geological, geographical and biological. conditions of the earth. This movement invariably and continuously occurs over geological time—at least one and a half and, apparently, no more than three billion years. IN last years a new science of the geological cycle has grown - geochemistry, which has the task of studying chemistry. elements that build our planet. The main subject of her study are chemical movements. elements of the earth's substance, no matter what causes these movements. These movements of elements are called chemical migrations. elements. Among the migrations there are those during which the chemical the element inevitably returns to its original state after a longer or shorter period of time; history of such chemicals elements in the earth's crust can be reduced thus. to a reversible process and is presented in the form of a circular process, a cycle. This type of migration is not typical for all elements, but for a significant number of them, including the vast majority of chemical elements. elements that build plant or animal organisms and the environment around us - oceans and waters, rocks and air. For such elements, the entire or overwhelming mass of their atoms is in the cycle of substances; for others, only an insignificant part of them is covered by the cycles. There is no doubt that most of the material of the earth's crust to a depth of 20-25 km is covered by gyres. For the following chem. elements, circular processes are characteristic and dominant among their migrations (the number indicates the ordinal number). H, Be4, B5, C«, N7, 08, P9, Nan, Mg12, Aha, Sii4, Pi5, Sie, Cli7, K19, Ca2o, Ti22, V23, Cr24, Mn25, Fe2e, Co27, Ni28, Cu29, Zn30 , Ge32, As33,Se34, Sr38,Mo42, Ag47,Cd48, Sn50, Sb51, Te62, Ba56) W74, Au79,Hg80,T]81,Pb82,Bi83. These elements can on this basis be separated from other elements as cyclic or organogenic elements. That. cycles characterize 42 elements out of 92 elements included in the Mendeleev system, and this number includes the most common dominant earthly elements.
Let us dwell on the first kind of cyclones, which involve biogenic migrations. These K. capture the biosphere (that is, the atmosphere, hydrosphere, weathering crust). Under the hydrosphere, they capture the basalt shell approaching the ocean floor. Under the land, they, in a sequence of depressions, embrace the thickness of sedimentary rocks (stratosphere), metamorphic and granite shells and enter the basalt shell. From the depths of the earth, lying behind the basalt shell, the substance of the earth does not fall into the observed K. It also does not fall into them from above because of the upper parts of the stratosphere. That. chemical cycles elements are surface phenomena occurring in the atmosphere to altitudes of 15-20 km (no higher), and in the lithosphere no deeper than 15-20 km. Every K., in order for it to be constantly renewed, requires an influx of external energy. Two main ones are known and there is no doubt. source of such energy: 1) cosmic energy - radiation from the sun (biogenic migration almost entirely depends on it) and 2) atomic energy associated with the radioactive decay of elements of the 78 series of uranium, thorium, potassium, rubidium. With a lesser degree of accuracy, mechanical energy can be distinguished , associated with the movement (due to gravity) of the earth's masses, and probably cosmic energy penetrating from above (Hess's rays).
The gyres, which involve several layers of the earth, proceed slowly, with stops, and can only be seen in geological time. They often span several geological periods. They are caused by geologist, displacements of land and ocean. Parts of K. can move quickly (for example, biogenic migration).
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The following are distinguished: forms of occurrence of chemical elements in the earth's crust : 1) independent mineral species; 2) impurities and mixtures – a) non-structural (dissipation state), b) structural (isomorphic impurities and mixtures); 3) silicate melts; 4) aqueous solutions and gas mixtures; 5) biogenic form. The first two forms are the most studied.
Independent mineral species(minerals) represent the most important form of existence of chemical elements in the earth's crust. Based on their prevalence, minerals are divided into five groups: very common, common, common ore, rare, and very rare.
Non-structural impurities do not have a crystal chemical connection with the crystal lattice of the host mineral and are in a state of scattering (according to A.E. Fersman - endocript scattering). This form of occurrence is typical for a group of radioactive elements, as well as for elements that do not form independent mineral species. The atmosphere and hydrosphere are especially favorable for dispersion. The content of 1 atom per 1 cm 3 of substance is conventionally accepted as the lower limit of scattering.
Structural impurities usually called isomorphic. Isomorphism called the property of atoms of one chemical element to replace atoms of another chemical element at the nodes of the crystal lattice with the formation of a uniform (homogeneous) mixed crystal of variable composition. The formation of an isomorphic mixture is determined primarily by the similarity of the parameters of the crystal lattices of the mixing components. Components that have a similar structure but do not form a homogeneous mixed crystal are called isostructural (e.g. halite NaCl and galena PbS).
Currently There are several types of isomorphism taking into account the following features: 1) degree of isomorphic miscibility – perfect and imperfect; 2)valence of ions involved in substitutions - isovalent and heterovalent; 3) the mechanism of entry of an atom into the crystal lattice - polar. For an isovalent isomorphism exists rule : if ions of larger or smaller radii are involved in the substitution, then the ion of smaller radius enters the crystal lattice first, and the ion of larger radius enters secondarily. Heterovalent isomorphism obeys law of diagonal rows periodic table DI. Mendeleev, established by A.E. Fersman.
The formation of isomorphic mixtures is due to several factors, including internal and external ones. Internal factors are determined by the features inherent in an atom (ion or molecule); these include the following: chemical indifference of atoms, sizes of atoms (ions), similarities in the type of chemical bond and crystal structures; maintaining electrostatic equilibrium during the formation of an isomorphic mixture. External factors isomorphism includes physical and chemical conditions of the environment - temperature, pressure, concentration of isomorphic components. At high temperatures, the isomorphic miscibility of the components increases. As the temperature decreases, the mineral is freed from impurities. This phenomenon is A.E. Fersman was named autolysis (self-cleaning). As pressure increases, atoms with smaller radii preferentially enter the crystal lattice of the host mineral. The combined role of temperature and pressure is illustrated by the isomorphic series of V.I. Vernadsky.
Isomorphic mixtures are stable while maintaining the physicochemical conditions of their formation. Changing these conditions causes mixtures to break down into their constituent components. Under endogenous conditions, the main factors of decomposition are temperature and pressure. Under exogenous conditions, the reasons for the decomposition of isomorphic mixtures are more diverse: a change in the valence of chemical elements isomorphically replacing each other, accompanied by a change in ionic radii; change in the type of chemical bond; change in pH of hypergenic solutions.
The phenomenon of isomorphism is widely used to solve various geological problems, in particular paleothermometry. The decomposition of isomorphic mixtures often leads to the formation of easily soluble compounds, which, as a result of leaching, are included in the composition of groundwater, which is the object of hydrogeochemical studies (1.140–159; 2.128–130; 3.96–102).
V.I. Vernadsky called the different states of atoms in the solid matter of the earth’s crust the forms of occurrence of elements. Nowadays, the idea of these forms is successfully used by geochemists to solve practical problems when searching for mineral deposits.
As we already know, at a sufficiently high concentration, atoms form crystal-chemical structures with a strictly ordered arrangement. At a very low concentration of a chemical element, its atoms cannot form independent compounds. If the radii of these atoms correspond to the existing crystal chemical structures, then the atoms can enter into them according to the laws of isomorphism. If there is no such correspondence, the atoms remain in a solid crystalline substance in a disordered, scattered state. Crystalline and dispersed states are the two most important forms of atoms in the earth's crust. The predominance of one form or the other depends on the clarke value of the element.
Eight chemical elements contained in the earth's crust in quantities of more than 1% are called major. There are so many atoms of these elements that most of them are in an ordered state in a crystalline substance. To them you can add minor elements contained in tenths of a percent. All other chemical elements, each of which is present in the earth's crust in quantities of less than 0.1%, should be called rare. They behave differently. Some of them are able to concentrate in certain places and form numerous independent minerals. Others are more or less evenly dispersed in the earth's crust, rarely or even not forming minerals at all. Therefore, the Soviet geochemist A. A. Beus proposes to subdivide less common chemical elements into mineralogenic ones, that is, those that form minerals, and dispersed ones, which do not form them.
Strictly speaking, atoms of all chemical elements are present in a dispersed state. However, there are those that do not occur at all in the form of independent compounds and are completely found in the form of an isomorphic impurity or in a dispersed state. These include rubidium, most of the rare earth elements, hafnium, indium, rhenium, all noble gases, all radioactive elements except uranium and thorium.
Currently, trace elements mean rare elements that are in non-mineralogical form, that is, included in the composition of minerals in the form of such an insignificant impurity that they cannot be reflected in the chemical formula. According to calculations by V.I. Vernadsky, in 1 cm3 solid The earth's crust contains the following number of atoms in a dispersed state: lithium - 10, bromine - 1018, yttrium - 10", gallium - 1018, etc.
The chemical composition of the earth's crust was determined based on the results of the analysis of numerous samples of rocks and minerals that came to the surface of the earth during mountain-forming processes, as well as taken from mine workings and deep boreholes.
Currently, the earth's crust has been studied to a depth of 15-20 km. It consists of chemical elements that are part of rocks.
The most common elements in the earth's crust are 46, of which 8 make up 97.2-98.8% of its mass, 2 (oxygen and silicon) - 75% of the Earth's mass.
The first 13 elements (with the exception of titanium), most commonly found in the earth's crust, are included in organic matter plants, participate in all vital processes and play an important role in soil fertility. A large number of elements involved in chemical reactions in the bowels of the Earth, leads to the formation of a wide variety of compounds. The chemical elements that are most abundant in the lithosphere are found in many minerals (mostly different rocks are made up of them).
Individual chemical elements are distributed in geospheres as follows: oxygen and hydrogen fill the hydrosphere; oxygen, hydrogen and carbon form the basis of the biosphere; oxygen, hydrogen, silicon and aluminum are the main components of clays and sands or weathering products (they mainly make up the upper part of the Earth's crust).
Chemical elements in nature are found in a variety of compounds called minerals. These are homogeneous chemical substances of the earth's crust that were formed as a result of complex physicochemical or biochemical processes, for example rock salt (NaCl), gypsum (CaS04*2H20), orthoclase (K2Al2Si6016).
In nature, chemical elements take an unequal part in the formation of different minerals. For example, silicon (Si) is a component of more than 600 minerals and is also very common in the form of oxides. Sulfur forms up to 600 compounds, calcium - 300, magnesium -200, manganese - 150, boron - 80, potassium - up to 75, only 10 lithium compounds are known, and even fewer iodine compounds.
Among the best known minerals in the earth's crust, a large group of feldspars with three main elements predominates - K, Na and Ca. In soil-forming rocks and their weathering products, feldspars occupy a major position. Feldspars gradually weather (disintegrate) and enrich the soil with K, Na, Ca, Mg, Fe and other ash substances, as well as microelements.
Clark number- numbers expressing the average content of chemical elements in the earth’s crust, hydrosphere, Earth, cosmic bodies, geochemical or cosmochemical systems, etc., in relation to the total mass of this system. Expressed in % or g/kg.
Types of clarks
There are weight (%, g/t or g/g) and atomic (% of the number of atoms) clarks. Summarizing data on chemical composition The study of various rocks that make up the earth's crust, taking into account their distribution to depths of 16 km, was first made by the American scientist F.W. Clark (1889). The numbers he obtained for the percentage of chemical elements in the composition of the earth's crust, subsequently somewhat refined by A.E. Fersman, at the latter's suggestion, were called Clark numbers or Clarks.
Molecule structure. Electrical, optical, magnetic and other properties of molecules are related to the wave functions and energies of various states of the molecules. Molecular spectra provide information about the states of molecules and the probability of transition between them.
The vibration frequencies in the spectra are determined by the masses of atoms, their location and the dynamics of interatomic interactions. The frequencies in the spectra depend on the moments of inertia of the molecules, the determination of which from spectroscopic data allows one to obtain accurate values of interatomic distances in the molecule. Total number lines and bands in the vibrational spectrum of a molecule depends on its symmetry.
Electronic transitions in molecules characterize the structure of their electronic shells and state chemical bonds. The spectra of molecules that have a greater number of bonds are characterized by long-wave absorption bands falling in the visible region. Substances that are built from such molecules are characterized by color; These substances include all organic dyes.
Ions. As a result of electron transitions, ions are formed - atoms or groups of atoms in which the number of electrons is not equal to the number of protons. If an ion contains more negatively charged particles than positively charged ones, then such an ion is called negative. Otherwise, the ion is called positive. Ions are very common in substances; for example, they are found in all metals without exception. The reason is that one or more electrons from each metal atom are separated and move within the metal, forming what is called an electron gas. It is due to the loss of electrons, that is, negative particles, that metal atoms become positive ions. This is true for metals in any state - solid, liquid or gas.
The crystal lattice models the arrangement of positive ions inside a crystal of a homogeneous metallic substance.
It is known that in the solid state all metals are crystals. The ions of all metals are arranged in an orderly manner, forming a crystal lattice. In molten and evaporated (gaseous) metals, there is no ordered arrangement of ions, but electron gas still remains between the ions.
Isotopes- varieties of atoms (and nuclei) of a chemical element that have the same atomic (ordinal) number, but at the same time different mass numbers. The name is due to the fact that all isotopes of one atom are placed in the same place (in one cell) of the periodic table. Chemical properties atoms depend on the structure of the electron shell, which, in turn, is determined mainly by the charge of the nucleus Z (that is, the number of protons in it), and almost do not depend on its mass number A (that is, the total number of protons Z and neutrons N). All isotopes of the same element have the same nuclear charge, differing only in the number of neutrons. Typically, an isotope is designated by the symbol of the chemical element to which it belongs, with the addition of an upper left suffix indicating the mass number. You can also write the name of the element followed by a hyphenated mass number. Some isotopes have traditional proper names (for example, deuterium, actinon).
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