"Conventional signs of topographic maps." Conventional signs on the map Topographic signs and their designations for schoolchildren
In these explanations, the numbers in parentheses indicate the numbers of those symbols in the tables to which these explanations relate.
In the tables, the numbers in square brackets at the headings or at the end of the name of the symbols indicate the numbers of the state data in the explanation.
Dimensions of symbols
1. The dimensions of the symbols (in millimeters) are indicated by digital signatures, located, as a rule, to the left of the symbol. If one digital signature is given for a conventional sign, this means that the width of the sign is equal to its height; if two signatures are given, then the first indicates the height of the sign, and the second - its width. Digital signatures for individual parts of the symbol indicate the height or width of these parts. For a symbol in the shape of a circle, the size of its diameter is indicated, in the shape of a star - the size of the diameter of the circumscribed circle, in the shape of an equilateral triangle - its height.
Conventional signs (or individual parts of signs), the dimensions of which are not indicated, are drawn in accordance (by style and size) with the design of the signs given in the tables.
2. Conventional signs are drawn with clear lines, usually 0.08-0.1 mm thick; symbols of points of the geodetic network (1,4), plants, factories and mills (45a, 46a), some bridges (151, 154, 156, 160 - for a map of scale 1: 25000 and 151, 153, 156, 159 - for maps scales 1: 50,000 and 1: 100,000), locks - (162, 163), dams (169, 170) on original map sheets of scale 1: 25,000 are drawn with lines 0.2-0.25 mm thick, and on original map sheets scales 1: 50,000 and 1: 100,000 - lines 0.2 mm thick.
The gaps between closely spaced symbols must be at least 0.2 mm (on the scale of the map publication).
3. When drawing original sheets of a map of scale 1: 100,000 on a scale of 1: 75,000, the sizes of conventional signs established for a map of scale 1: 25,000 are accepted. In the case where the sizes of signs for maps of all three scales are set to the same (signs of railways, crossings , platforms and stopping points, sea channels that are not expressed on the scale of the map, etc.), when drawing originals on a scale of 1:75000, the size of the symbols must be increased by one third.
4. When drawing original sheets of maps of scales 1: 50,000 and 1: 100,000 for individual areas for symbols of objects that are good landmarks, such as signs of geodetic network points (1, 2, 4, 5), factory and factory pipes (44 ), plants, factories and mills (45, 46), etc., according to the decision of the editor, the dimensions established for a map at a scale of 1:25000 can be accepted.
In addition, in order to improve the readability of the map and to highlight the most important objects, it is allowed, at the discretion of the editor, to reduce or increase within small limits the size of some symbols.
Symbol color
5. In the tables, all symbols are given in the colors of paints adopted for the publication of maps.
On the original topographic surveys, conventional signs are drawn in the following paint colors: elements of hydrography, glaciers and firn fields (eternal snow) - green, relief elements - brown, all other line elements of content - black (ink). The areas depicting water spaces are painted in blue, the gap between the lines of conventional highway signs is painted in pink. The image areas of the remaining elements, on which background shading is given when publishing the map, are highlighted on the topographic survey originals with special line marks, namely: blocks of settlements with a predominance of fire-resistant buildings are indicated by a cross-shaped shading (16), blocks with a predominance of non-fire-resistant buildings - a single shading (17 ), forest areas - with black circles (235), areas of low-growing forest - with red circles (243), areas of continuous thickets of bushes - with red bush signs (253). Instead of the indicated line marks, background shading can also be used (paints that are poorly reproduced when photographed, but provide good readability).
Instructions for the use of some symbols
Strong points
6 (1-5). The symbol of points of the state geodetic network shows triangulation and polygonometry points of classes 1, 2, 3 and 4, the coordinates of which in the 1942 System are placed in catalogs (lists) of coordinates of geodetic points. Points of geodetic networks of local importance, the coordinates of which are placed in catalogs (lists) of coordinates of geodetic points, are depicted by a conventional sign of points of the survey network, fixed on the ground by centers.
The symbol of points of the state geodetic network on buildings (an empty circle in the symbols of buildings and churches) is used when depicting buildings, the towering parts of which (spiers, towers, etc.) are defined as geodetic points and their coordinates are included in catalogs. The circle on the building symbol is positioned so that its center corresponds to the point whose coordinates are determined. This conventional sign is not used to designate mosques, factory and factory pipes, plants, factories and mills with pipes, capital tower-type structures, lighthouses, lights and other similar objects defined as geodetic points. When drawn, the coordinates of such objects refer to the geometric center or the middle of the base of the sign (depending on the shape of the sign).
Settlements
7 (8). Conventional signs in the form of filled rectangles and other figures show residential and non-residential buildings in neighborhoods, in settlements with haphazard development, as well as separately located buildings.
8 tables provide three sizes of symbols to show residential and non-residential buildings that are not expressed on the map scale. The smallest sign is used to designate buildings located in urban, rural and dacha settlements, as well as in settlements with haphazard development; the medium size sign is used to designate buildings located outside settlements or in settlements, but distinguished by their size or important as landmarks; large sign - to show buildings that are remote from populated areas and have landmark significance. If the area of a building on the map scale exceeds the size of the large size sign, then such a structure is depicted to scale.
8 (9). The symbol of outstanding fire-resistant buildings on a map at a scale of 1: 25,000 is used to show fire-resistant buildings located outside populated areas and in populated areas of all types, if they stand out among other buildings and can serve as good landmarks.
On a map of scale 1: 50,000, this symbol is used when depicting fire-resistant buildings located outside populated areas, in rural and dacha-type settlements, as well as on the outskirts of cities and urban-type settlements with a rural or dacha type of development. In other cases, they are shown by symbols of residential and non-residential buildings (8).
If an outstanding building is adjacent to a street, then the edging line in the symbol (on maps of both scales) from the side of the street image is not drawn.
9 (10.41-43). The symbol for separate courtyards is used to designate courtyards with a residential building and small outbuildings located outside populated areas. This sign is also used to show courtyards in dispersed settlements and, in addition, to show
on maps of scales 1: 25,000 and 1: 50,000 yards in villages with row buildings, located separately from the built-up row.
Yards, the areas of which on the scale map exceed (more than one and a half times) the established dimensions of the sign, are depicted to scale, with an accurate display of the planned position of the residential building and other buildings located in the yard.
10 (11, 18). The conventional sign of destroyed and dilapidated buildings shows the remains of buildings (ruins) that have been preserved and are clearly visible on the ground. Destroyed settlements and destroyed parts of settlements with surviving remains of buildings are shown with the symbol of destroyed neighborhoods; streets are shown only in cases where travel is possible through them.
11 (16, 17, 20). When depicting settlements with block and row buildings, blocks and parts of blocks (rows) with dense buildings are distinguished (the latter include blocks or parts thereof, where the distances between buildings, as a rule, do not exceed 50 m).
When depicting rural-type settlements with row buildings, the built-up rows are shown in stripes 1.4-1.5 mm wide - on a map of scale 1: 25,000 and 1.1-1.2 mm. — on a map of scale 1: 50,000; if the built-up rows have a width exceeding the indicated dimensions on the map scale, then they are shown to scale, showing their actual configuration.
On maps of scales 1: 25,000 and 1: 50,000, densely built-up areas with a predominance (more than 50%) of fire-resistant buildings (stone, brick, reinforced concrete, etc.) are highlighted with an orange background color when published, and with a predominance of non-fire-resistant buildings ( wooden, adobe, adobe, etc.) - yellow.
On a map at a scale of 1:100000, the nature of the fire resistance of buildings in blocks is not displayed.
12 (16, 17, 20). On a map at a scale of 1:25,000, when depicting urban-type settlements, the development in the blocks is shown in detail by symbols of buildings and structures. If the distances between building signs are less than 0.3 mm, a selection is made. The symbols of buildings adjacent to each other merge. When depicting blocks with continuous buildings along the streets, small buildings that are not adjacent to the streets are not shown.
On a map at a scale of 1:50,000, settlements, except large cities, are depicted showing the nature of the development. When depicting large cities characterized by dense buildings (as a rule, cities with a population of 50,000 inhabitants or more, as well as with a smaller number of inhabitants, but corresponding to such cities in area), only outstanding buildings, as well as industrial facilities and structures, are shown from the buildings in the blocks , which are guidelines.
On a map of scale 1: 100,000, the development of settlements, except for large cities, is shown with a black fill. In places where there are characteristic gaps in the development on the ground, filling is not given. Neighborhoods with dense buildings in large cities (as a rule, with a population of 50,000 inhabitants or more, as well as with a smaller number of inhabitants, but corresponding to such cities in area) are shown as closed outlines with an orange background color.In this case, the largest objects and structures that are good landmarks are also displayed.
When depicting blocks of settlements with background shading in orange, the generalization of blocks is carried out with the condition that their dimensions on the map scale are at least 1.0X1.0 mm; when depicting blocks (rows) with a black fill, the width of the filled strip should, as a rule, be 0.5 mm; in some cases, to achieve a more correct display of the layout and building, the width of the filled strip can be reduced to 0.4 mm.
13 (20-25). Parks, squares, orchards, sports grounds, vacant lots in residential areas are highlighted on maps of scales 1:25,000 and 1:50,000 if their area is at least 1.5x2.0 mm on the map scale.
Small areas of tree plantations and individual trees in blocks on a map of scale 1: 25,000, as well as on a map of scale 1: 50,000 (in the case of a detailed image of the building) are shown as circles against the background of shading, which characterizes the fire resistance of buildings.
14 (20, 35-37). When depicting rural-type settlements with block and row buildings on maps of scales 1: 25,000 and 1: 50,000, all buildings and structures in blocks (rows) are shown if the distances between building signs are at least 0.3 mm. At smaller distances, buildings are shown with selection so that the gaps between building signs are about 0.3 mm; Prominent fire-resistant structures and other buildings important as landmarks should not be excluded.
15 (20, 32-34; 38-40). When depicting dacha-type settlements and settlements with unsystematic development on maps of all scales, the development is depicted by symbols of residential and non-residential buildings and structures.
16 (21-37). Streets in populated areas are drawn in two lines 0.1 mm thick. When depicting main streets (main passages), the gap between the lines should be equal to 0.8 mm - on maps of scales 1:25,000 and 1: 50,000 and 0.6 mm - on a map of scale 1: 100,000. When depicting other streets, the gap between lines should be equal to 0.5 and 0.3 mm, respectively. If the width of the streets on the map scale exceeds the established values, the streets are depicted to scale.
The images of main streets (main passages) connecting highways are shaded in orange, with the exception of cases where residential areas are shown in orange or yellow.
17 (38-43). Conventional signs of residential and non-residential buildings and individual courtyards located along railways (except for signs of objects shown in combination with images of railways, for example signs of waypoints, loading and unloading areas, etc.), as well as along dirt, field and forest roads and trails are drawn at a distance of at least 0.2 mm from the road image (at a scale of 1: 75000 - at least 0.3 mm). These same conventional signs with road signs depicted in two lines are drawn together.
Industrial, agricultural and socio-cultural facilities
18. Conventional signs of industrial, agricultural and socio-cultural objects are located when drawing so that the following points of the symbol on the map correspond to the location of the object on the ground:
- for signs that have a regular geometric shape (circle, square, rectangle, star, etc.), the geometric center of the sign;
- for signs that have the shape of a figure with a wide base (signs of factory and factory chimneys, meteorological stations, etc.), - the middle of the base of the sign;
- for signs that have the shape of a figure with a right angle at the base (signs of gas stations, windmills, etc.), the apex of a right angle;
- for signs that are a combination of several figures (signs of oil and gas rigs, transformer booths, etc.) - the geometric center of the lower figure.
19. If the territory occupied by an object is depicted on a map to scale or its boundaries are indicated by a closed contour, then a symbol is placed inside such an image in the places indicated below:
- symbol of factory and factory pipes (44, 456) - in a place corresponding to the actual location of the pipe;
- conventional sign for mines and adits (47, 48) - in a place corresponding to the location of the headframe above the entrance to the mine or the planned position of the entrance to the adit; if the entrances to mines (adits) are located inside buildings expressed on a map scale, then the symbol of these objects is not used, but the buildings themselves are shown;
— symbol of peat mining (51) — in the middle of the image of the peat mining territory; if peat mining occupies a large area - in several places, at the rate of one sign per 4-5 square meters. cm map area;
- signs of oil and gas rigs and wells (52,53) - in a place corresponding to the actual location of the derrick or well;
- sign of fuel warehouses and gas tanks (54) - in the place corresponding to the location of the tank, tank or gas tank;
- sign of radio stations and television centers (58) - in a place corresponding to the location of the main building or building with a mast; sign of radio masts and television masts (59) - in a place corresponding to the actual location of the mast;
— signs of airfields (water aerodromes), landing sites (60) — in the middle of the image of the territories of these objects.
20 (46, 56, 72). When depicting plants, factories and mills without chimneys, power plants and meteorological stations, the territory of which is expressed on a map scale, symbols are not placed on the image of the territory, but signatures of the type of object or type of production are given nearby. If the listed objects are not expressed on the map scale, then they are depicted with corresponding off-scale symbols, which, if necessary, are accompanied by captions.
21. If one symbol serves to depict two or more different objects on maps, for example, oil and gas derricks (52), oil and gas wells without derricks (53), water mills and sawmills (61), monuments and monuments, tours and stone pillars more than 1 m high, mass graves and individual graves that have the significance of landmarks (74), etc., then it is usually accompanied by a signature indicating the type of object; if the signature would make it difficult to show other objects, then it will not fit.
22(44). The symbol of factory and factory pipes also shows the pipes of central heating systems in residential buildings, bathhouses, etc., which stand out for their height and have landmark significance.
23 (49). When drawn, the symbol for open-pit mining sites that are not expressed on a map scale is oriented with the convex side up the slope.
24 (50). The symbol for open-pit salt mining in the form of a closed contour, marked with lines parallel and perpendicular to the middle meridian of the sheet, is used to depict small areas of lake or sea salt extraction. When depicting salt mines with an area on a map scale of more than 4 square meters. cm stenciling is not given, and dams, canals, access roads and other structures are shown with appropriate symbols; such an image is always accompanied by the signature sol. or (subject to availability) salt developments.
25 (66). The symbol of apiaries is used to designate permanent apiaries on the territory of which there are no buildings. If there are buildings at the apiary (a yard with a residential building or non-residential buildings), then they are shown with the appropriate symbols with the signature apiary, and the apiary sign itself is not given.
26 (27). The symbol for livestock pens is drawn in accordance with the orientation of the pen on the ground. Enclosures whose areas on the map scale exceed the dimensions of the symbol are shown to scale, showing their actual outlines. In this case, the signature corral is provided.
27 (71). The symbol of telegraph, radiotelegraph offices and branches and telephone exchanges is used when depicting sparsely populated areas to indicate the presence of corresponding facilities in rural settlements. The sign is placed under the signature of the name of the locality (see Article 107).
28 (75, 76). The symbol for cemeteries that are not expressed on the scale of the map is drawn in accordance with the orientation of the cemetery on the ground. When depicting cemeteries with trees on topographic survey originals, additional circles are drawn in the cemetery symbol (241); if the area of the cemetery image is small, then one circle is drawn or shaded in purple.
29 (78, 79, 80). Communication and power lines running in the right-of-way of railways, highways and highways are not shown on maps. If-
If a communication or power line approaches the road from the side and then follows along it, then only a small section of the communication or power line (1-2 cm) is drawn parallel to the road sign to indicate its direction (100, 120). Signs of communication and power lines through the designations of roads and rivers are carried out without a break; When approaching the image of populated areas, they are interrupted.
When depicting on a map at a scale of 1: 25,000 power lines on metal or reinforced concrete supports, the transverse strokes of the symbol are applied in places corresponding to the actual position of the supports, in cases where the distance between the supports is more than 200 m; with a smaller distance between the supports, as well as on original sheets of maps of scales 1:50000 and 1:100000, the transverse strokes of the sign are drawn at the intervals indicated in the table; In this case, the supports that are the turning points of the line must be shown. The height of the supports (in meters) is indicated on the maps after 6-8 cm.
30 (79-83). Power transmission lines, gas pipelines and oil pipelines under construction are depicted by the corresponding symbols of existing facilities with the signature under construction (under construction) or page.
Railways and structures attached to them
31 (84-86.88). Transverse strokes in railway symbols, indicating the number of tracks, are drawn after 4 cm - on a map of scale 1: 25,000 and after 3 cm - on maps of scales 1: 50,000 and 1: 100,000. If individual strokes cannot be drawn in compliance with the specified intervals , then stroke displacement is allowed.
32 (84). The symbol of semaphores and traffic lights (on a map of scale 1: 25,000) is always drawn so that its longitudinal axis is parallel to the middle meridian of the sheet. The circle at the top of the symbol, depending on the convenience of placement, can be drawn to the right or left of the main figure of the sign.
33 (85.87). The symbol of stations is used to designate stations of any class in cases where the main station buildings (stations) and other station buildings and structures, as well as station tracks are not expressed on the map scale. The filled rectangle in the station symbol is placed in the place corresponding to the actual location of the main station building (station).
34 (91). The overpass symbol is drawn so that its length is equal to the length of the overpass on the map scale, but is not less than 2 mm. The image of long-distance overpasses (for example, overpasses laid to offshore oil fields remote from the shore) is accompanied by the caption overpass.
35 (93). In the conventional sign for the track of dismantled railways, the strokes in relation to the lines of the conventional sign are drawn at an angle of 60°. The same conventional sign also depicts the track of dismantled narrow-gauge railways.
36 (94). When drawing narrow-gauge railways and tram lines passing through the streets in populated areas, the thickness of the symbol line is reduced to 0.2 mm.
If a tram line runs along the side of a highway, then the tram line symbol is combined with the highway sign, i.e., it is drawn in place of one of the lines of the highway symbol (120).
Electrified narrow-gauge railways are not distinguished with a special sign.
37 (98). When large railway stations are shown to scale, the main track is shown with a single track sign or thick line, and other tracks are shown with thin lines. If it is impossible to show all the paths with the intervals between the lines on which they are drawn in the table, then the lines are drawn without saving the total number of paths, but displaying the configuration of the territory occupied by the paths. Access railway tracks in factory areas, ports, etc. are also shown.
Station buildings, depots and other station buildings and structures are shown with appropriate symbols.
Highway and dirt roads, trails
38 (99). The conventional sign for motorways shows roads that have a solid base and a durable coating of asphalt or cement concrete, the width of the covered part is at least 14 m, a dividing strip (as a rule) between traffic lanes in different directions, slopes of no more than 4%, intersections with other roads at different levels.
39 (100). The conventional sign of improved highways shows roads with a solid base and a coating of asphalt, cement concrete, paving stones, clinker, as well as crushed stone or gravel impregnated with binders, with a width of the covered part of at least 6 m.
40 (101). The conventional highway sign shows roads with a stone base. sand or hard soil and a covering of gravel, crushed stone or slag, compacted by rolling or treated with binders, as well as cobblestone and crushed stone pavements. This sign also shows roads with a base and surface of improved highways with a width of the covered part of less than 6 m.
41 (103). The symbol of improved dirt roads shows profiled, regularly repaired roads that do not have a solid base or surface. The soil of the roadway can be improved with various additives (gravel, crushed stone, sand, etc.) or treated with binders. These roads support medium-sized vehicle traffic during most of the year.
42 (106). The symbol for unpaved (country) roads shows unprofiled, unpaved roads, driven by horse-drawn vehicles;
their permeability depends on the nature of the soil and seasonal and climatic conditions.
43 (107). The conventional sign for field and forest roads shows dirt roads along which the movement of horse-drawn vehicles occurs sporadically, mainly during periods of field work and forestry.
44 (108). The conventional sign of caravan routes and pack trails shows roads in desert, semi-desert and mountainous areas used for pack transport; caravan routes can also be suitable for horse-drawn transport.
45 (109). The conventional sign for pedestrian paths shows the simplest paths suitable only for pedestrian traffic.
46 (110). The conventional sign of winter roads shows temporary routes in sparsely populated and inaccessible areas, passing through frozen swamps, lakes and river beds, as well as bays and straits; winter roads used by motor vehicles are identified by a winter road caption placed along the image of the road.
47 (111). The conventional sign for roads with a wooden surface shows roads with a flooring made of boards or wooden plates laid on cross sleepers, as well as from logs or wooden blocks.
48 (112). Fashin sections of roads (fashinniki), gati and rowing are shown when depicting improved dirt and unpaved (country) roads passing through wetlands. Fashinniki - sections of roads lined with bundles of brushwood (fascines); Fachines are usually laid on longitudinal beds, pressed against them with poles along the edges, and covered with a layer of earth or sand on top. Gati are a continuous flooring of logs, sometimes laid over brushwood. Rowing - embankments made of earth, stone, sand and other materials.
49 (99–101, 103, 106). When depicting motorways and highways, their technical characteristics are given: the width of the paved part of the road, the width of the road with shoulders (for highways) and the coating material. The width of the road is indicated in whole meters. The coating material is indicated by conventional abbreviated signatures:
A - asphalt, asphalt concrete Kl - clinker B - cobblestone C - cement concrete Br - paving stones Shl - slag G - gravel Shch - crushed stone K - crushed stone
The boundary for changing the coating material is indicated on the conventional road sign by a transverse line, on both sides of which the signatures of the coating materials are given (122).
On conventional signs for improved dirt roads, the width of the roadway is indicated.
On conventional signs for dirt (country) roads, their width is indicated in places where travel is possible only along the road (in a forest, in a swamp, etc.).
50 (102). Light roadside structures (pavilions, sheds) are shown on maps of scales 1:50,000 and 1:100,000 if they have landmark value.
51 (100, 116, 120, 139). Plantings of trees or bushes located along roads (rivers, canals, ditches) are depicted respectively by circles or circles and dots, which are placed at a distance of 0.2 mm from the line of the road sign (rivers, canals, ditches); with double-sided casing, casing marks are arranged in a checkerboard pattern. When combining images of casing and communication lines, circles of the casing sign alternate with points of the communication line sign.
Rarely located trees or bushes along roads (rivers, canals, ditches) are shown by the sign of individual trees that have no landmark significance (241), or by the sign of bushes along rivers, canals and ditches (139), which are drawn in places corresponding to the actual location of the trees or bushes
Plantings along roads, rivers and canals, which are strips of forest or shrubs with a width of 1.5 mm or less on a map scale, are shown with appropriate symbols (237, 255).
52 (121). The conventional sign of kilometer signs (posts and stones) is used to designate such signs on roads in sparsely populated areas and areas poor in landmarks. The conventional sign (Stroke) is drawn perpendicular to the image of the road and on the side of it on which the kilometer sign is located from the road.
Hydrography
53 (124). The table shows the minimum length of the links of a symbol of a non-permanent and uncertain coastline, used only to depict small bodies of water. When depicting large bodies of water, the length of the links should be increased. The gaps between the links also increase somewhat.
54 (131). The conventional sign for steep shores without a beach shows steep shores of seas, lakes and other bodies of water, as well as rivers with a map width of 1.5 mm or more, when passage between the coastline and the cliff is impossible. When depicting rivers less than 1.5 mm wide, steep banks without a beach are shown as steep banks with a beach that is not expressed at the map scale (1316).
55 (133). Rivers and streams are depicted in one or two lines, depending on their width, according to the following table.
River image on the map
River width in meters when depicted on scale maps
In one line
In two lines with a gap between them of 0.3 mm
In two lines, maintaining the actual width of the river on the map scale
Rivers depicted in one line are drawn, as a rule, with a gradual thickening of the line from source to mouth; rivers flowing in desert areas can be drawn with a gradual decrease in line thickness at the mouth (for rivers lost in the sand); The line thickness should be between 0.1 and 0.5 mm. When depicting rivers in two lines, the thickness of each line should be about 0.1 mm, and the smallest gap between them should be 0.3 mm. The transition from the image of a river in one line to its image in two lines should be smooth.
Canalized sections of rivers are shown in one or two lines, as is customary for depicting rivers and streams. Straight sections of canalized rivers are drawn using a ruler.
56 (135, 137). Channels with a width of more than 15, 30 and 60 m respectively on maps of scales 1: 25,000, 1: 50,000 and 1: 100,000 are drawn to scale in accordance with their actual width.
57 (141). When depicting rivers and canals with dams (artificial ramparts) in two lines, the coastlines are replaced by the lines of the symbol of the dams and between them a shading is given, adopted to indicate the areas of water spaces.
58 (145). The length of arrows indicating the direction of flow of rivers and canals that have a constant flow should be in the range from 5 to 15 mm, depending on the size of the river or canal.
59 (147). Fords across rivers, depicted in two lines, are indicated by a dashed line (if the width of the river image is less than 2 mm, one stroke is given) and the signature br. (ford); Conventional road signs are interrupted. Fords across rivers. depicted in one line are indicated only by a signature; road signs in this case are drawn through the image of rivers without a break. Markings for fords across rivers 5 m or more wide include the characteristics of a ford.
60 (148). Transportation across rivers is indicated by a broken line (if the river is depicted in one line or in two lines, if the width of the image is less than 2 ll., one stroke is given) with the signature lane. (transportation); Conventional road signs are always interrupted.
61 (151-161). Bridges with a length of 3 to 40 m. From 3 to 80 m and from 3 to 120 m, respectively, on maps of scales 1: 25,000, 1: 50,000 and 1: 100,000 are shown with a symbol for bridges with a length of 3 m or more (in the indicated dimensions ); Longer bridges are shown to scale according to their actual dimensions.
The designations of bridges with a length of more than 3 m, located on highways and dirt roads, have their characteristics signed: the materials of construction are indicated in letters (D - wooden, Zh.B - reinforced concrete, K. - stone, .M - metal) and numbers - length and width bridge in meters and its load capacity in tons; In the designations of bridges over navigable rivers, in addition, the height of the bottom of the truss above the water level (at low water) is taken into account. If the load capacity of the bridge is more than 100 tons, then the signature of St. 100 (119).
The characteristics of railway bridges (116) are signed if their length is 100 l or more; the characteristics indicate the material of the building, the height from the water or ground level to the bottom of the span and the length of the bridge in meters, for example: ZhB 12—380. (reinforced concrete bridge, height 12 m, length ZNO m).
When depicting road intersections at different levels in cases where a highway passes through a bridge, the designation of the bridge (overpass) additionally gives the characteristics of the passage (opening) underneath it - height and latitude in meters. for example: example 6x8, where b is the height, 8 is the width (119).
62 (162, 163). Symbol of gateways, expressed on a map scale. gateways are shown, the distance between the entrance and exit gates of which on the map scale is 2 mm or more. Internal gates in multi-chamber airlocks are shown if the distance between the gates is at least 1 mm.
To depict gateways, the distance between the outer gates of which is less than 2 mm on the map scale, the symbol of gateways is used, not expressed on the map scale; the sign is placed in the place corresponding to the crossing of the lock system.
The characteristics of gateways (expressed and not expressed on a map scale) are given according to the main course of the gateway system. The specification indicates the number of gateway chambers (if there are two or more), the length of the smallest chamber in meters, the minimum gate width and the minimum depth at the threshold of the gateway gate.
When drawn, conventional lock signs are oriented so that the tip of the sign is directed against the flow of the river (canal).
63 (166). The symbol of rapids and waterfalls in the form of a chain of triangles is used to show rapids and waterfalls on rivers, depicted in two lines, with a river image width of 2 mm or more; rapids and waterfalls on rivers of smaller width (including those depicted in one line) are indicated by a transverse stroke and the signature por., vdp.
64 (167). Spills are shown only when depicting large rivers, if the width of the flooded strip is at least 1 km and the duration of flooding of the area is at least two months. Terrain objects in flooded areas, as well as in areas of reservoirs under construction, are shown with appropriate symbols. When depicting a reservoir under construction on a map sheet, this symbol is placed outside the frame (on the eastern side) with an explanation, for example: Flood zone of the Pervomaisky reservoir (shown based on design materials).
65 (169). For dam designations, the material of the structure is indicated by abbreviated captions: Bet. - concrete, D - wooden, reinforced concrete - reinforced concrete, Earth - earthen, K - stone.
66 (175–178). The signature K.. at the sign of a well depicted on the map without a signature of its own name is given only in cases where the well needs to be highlighted as a landmark. Designations of artesian wells are accompanied by the signature art. k., hydrological wells - signed by hydr. well
On maps of scales 1: 25,000, 1: 50,000, 1: 100,000, the designations of the main wells and springs in arid and waterless areas are marked with their characteristics. The well designations include: ground level, well depth in meters, quality characteristics of the water (salty, bitter-salty;
fresh—not specified) and the filling capacity of the well in liter hours; The designations of artesian wells and main sources indicate the ground level, the quality characteristics of the water and the flow rate in litre-hours. Signatures also accompany the designations of wells in which there is no water (dry, filled-in).
On a map of scale 1: 25,000, wells in all areas are marked with the ground level, well depth and water quality characteristics.
67 (186). The symbol for breakwaters and berths that are not expressed on the map scale shows breakwaters and berths with a width on the map scale of less than 0.5 mm;
The length of the image of such piers and berths must correspond to their actual length on the map scale, but should not be less than 1 mm. If it is necessary to show shorter piers and berths, then the length of their image increases to 1 mm.
68 (187). The length of signs depicting breakwaters and groynes must correspond to their actual length on the map scale, but should not be less than 1 mm; if it is necessary to show shorter booms, then the length of their image increases to 1 mm. If the width of the river image is less than 2 mm, the groins are not shown.
Relief
69 (206). The main horizontals, additional (semi-horizontals) and auxiliary horizontals are drawn on publishing originals with well-filled lines 0.08-0.1 mm thick; thickened horizontal lines are drawn with lines 0.2–0.25 mm thick. Indicators of the direction of slopes (bergshtri-hi) are always drawn with a thin line 0.6 mm long.
Contour lines on the publishing original are drawn through the designations of all objects without a break, with the exception of rivers and canals depicted in two lines, gullies and ravines with a width on a map scale of less than 3 mm, recesses, pits and quarries. With the combined drawing of all horizontal elements, except
In addition, images of streets less than 1.5 mm wide, roads shown in two lines, and out-of-scale symbols should not intersect.
In any case, digital signatures should be horizontal with their base oriented down the slope.
70 (207). Dry river beds are depicted in one or two lines depending on their width, as is customary for depicting rivers and streams (v. 55). When the width of the dry channel on the map scale is 3 mm or more, horizontal lines are drawn between the lines depicting the banks and the bottom soil (sand, pebbles, rocky placers) is displayed with the corresponding symbols.
71 (209). Labels of elevation marks at road intersections, individual trees and landmark buildings are given as examples; elevation marks can also be placed when designating other objects that are landmarks.
72 (213). The symbol for outlier rocks is given in two sizes. A larger sign is used to highlight the largest rocks that can serve as good landmarks.
73 (216). The symbol of mounds on maps of scales 1:50000 and 1:100000 shows not only artificial (bulk) mounds, but also various mounds of natural formation (for example, bulgunnyakhs, common in permafrost areas), not expressed by horizontal lines. The designations of the Bulgunnyakhs are accompanied by the signature of the Bulg. On a map of scale 1:25,000, artificial landforms (pits, mounds) are depicted with black symbols.
74 (217). The symbol for karst sinkholes that are not expressed on the map scale shows sinkholes with a diameter less than that on the map scale. 2 mm. Large forms of karst formations, depending on the nature of the slopes, are depicted by horizontal lines - on gentle slopes or by symbols of holes. expressed on the map scale (2156), cliffs (231) and rocks (223zh) - on steep slopes. At the same time, on the map area where the distribution of karst formations is displayed, the signature karst is given.
75 (218). The conventional sign for entrances to caves and grottoes is oriented when drawn so that its base is parallel to the north or south side of the sheet frame.
76 (219). Volcano craters, expressed on the map scale, are shown by symbols of cliffs (231), rocks (223zh) or horizontal lines (if the internal slopes of the crater are gentle).
77 (221). The conventional sign of dikes depicts narrow, steep-walled ridges of hard rocks, located along mountain slopes, often inconsistent with the general slope of the surface. Images of dikes of significant length or height are accompanied by a caption of their relative height.
78 (223a, b). The boundaries of firn fields (eternal snow) are indicated by a dotted line (blue), except in cases where the border of their distribution runs along natural boundaries (rocks, cliffs). Images of glaciers are outlined with a thin blue line. The images of the firn field and the glacier are not separated by a contour.
79 (223zh, z, i, 226). According to the line drawing of rocks and screes in places where the laying allows, horizontal lines are drawn that correspond to the thickened ones, but with a decrease in their thickness to 0.08-0.1 mm.
When depicting steep slopes in areas where the gaps between contour lines are less than 0.1 mm, merging contour lines is allowed (if the length of the area on the map scale is less than 1 cm) or between thickened contour lines, not four, but three or two intermediate contour lines are drawn (if the length of the area is more than 1 cm), and the remaining horizontal lines are interrupted.
80 (225). Ice cliffs (barriers) and fossil ice are represented by the ri-suv of the rock sign or the sign of cliffs, depending on the width of their distribution in the plan.
Vegetation cover and soils
81. Tables No. 23-26 indicate the minimum distances between the line symbols filling the area of the vegetation image
Soils (orchards, vineyards, rice fields, etc.), which should be managed
used when depicting small (area on a map scale up to 3-4 sq. cm) plots of land. When depicting areas of significant area, the distances between line symbols can be increased by one and a half, two or three times, depending on the size of the area filled by the signs. When depicting small areas of various types of vegetation and soils, shown by line symbols in combination with background shading (for example, continuous thickets of saxaul or dwarf dwarf), it is allowed to draw only one line symbol on the contoured area.
82 (232). The dotted line depicts the contours of areas of vegetation, soil and arable land that are clearly defined on the ground. The contours of arable lands are not filled with a special symbol.
83 (233-236, 243, 244). Forests, low-growing (dwarf) forests, undergrowth, forest nurseries and young plantings are depicted with division into coniferous, deciduous and mixed, for which line symbols are used. The predominant tree species are indicated by captions. Signatures are given in a conventional abbreviation, and if conventional abbreviations are not provided for them, then in full form.
When depicting a mixed forest, two main species are indicated.
The characteristics of the forest stand indicate the average values (average height, average thickness and average distance between trees).
The characteristics of the tree stand of a low-growing (dwarf) forest are signed only when large tracts are depicted (with an area on a map scale of more than 25 sq. cm) in the same form as the characteristics of an ordinary forest.
In the designation of the type of growth, forest nurseries and young forest plantings, only the average height of trees in meters is indicated; the height of trees less than 1 m is indicated in tenths of a meter.
84 (237). The symbol for narrow strips of forest and protective forest plantations shows strips of forest and protective forest plantations whose width on the map scale is 1.5 mm or less; with a larger width, they are shown, respectively, as symbols of a forest or undergrowth, with outlines and background shading.
The numbers indicate the average height of trees in meters; the height of plantings less than 1 m is indicated in tenths of a meter.
85 (241). The symbol of individual trees, which do not have landmark significance, is used to show trees inside residential areas, near individual courtyards and buildings, in vegetable gardens, arable lands, meadows, etc.
86 (248-251). Clearings in the forest with a width of 20 m or more, 40 m or more and 60 m or more, respectively, on maps of scales 1: 25000, 1: 50000 and 1: 100000 are shown in two broken thin lines in accordance with their actual width at the map scale; in the gap between the lines of the symbol, green shading is not given. Clearings of smaller width are shown as one dashed line, while the thickness of the sign strokes increases slightly (up to 0.15 mm).
Roads, communication lines, ditches and other objects passing along clearings that are not expressed on the scale of the map are shown with accepted symbols; in these cases, the symbol of the clearing is not drawn.
87 (254). The type and height of shrubs are indicated when depicting continuous thickets. The average height of shrubs is indicated in tenths of a meter if it is less than 1 m, and in whole meters for greater heights.
88 (255). The symbol of narrow strips of shrubs and hedges is used to depict strips of these plantings with a width of 1.5 mm or less on a map scale; when they are wider, they are shown as a symbol of continuous thickets of bushes, with outlines and background shading (2536).
89 (263). Mangroves are shown with hatched symbols on both the land image and the water image in accordance with the distribution of mangroves in the area. In the image of land, the signs of mangrove vegetation are drawn in combination with the conventional sign of an impenetrable swamp.
90 (264). When depicting greenhouses, conventional signs are placed in accordance with the orientation of the greenhouses on the ground; The minimum length of the sign (rectangle divided by a line) must be 3.2 mm.
91 (266). The symbol of a plantation of industrial crops (trees, shrubs and herbs) shows plantations for which special symbols are not provided. Plantations of those crops for which land plots are permanently occupied are distinguished. Types of crops are indicated by signatures (tung, rose, jute, etc.).
92 (268). Symbols for reed and reed thickets are placed without markings.
93 (272–275). When depicting small swamps and salt marshes (with an area on the map scale of less than 1 sq. cm), the distances between the strokes of the symbol are reduced to 0.8 mm on a map of scale 1: 25,000 and 0.6 mm on maps of scale 1: 50,000 and 1: 100000. Symbols of vegetation based on the image of a swamp are placed without markings. The classification of swamps and salt marshes is made according to their passability for pedestrians.
94 (276). The conventional sign of takyrs is used to depict flat, devoid of vegetation areas of clay surface with a hard crust, broken by small cracks, found in desert and semi-desert areas.
Takyrs with an area of less than 25 square meters on the map scale. mm are shown as a single line mark, without bordering or background shading.
95 (277). The symbol of polygonal surfaces is used to depict areas common in tundra and mountainous regions with a surface broken by cracks that form a peculiar pattern of polygons.
96 (278). The symbol of surfaces with mounds is used to depict areas with peat mounds that are not expressed on the map scale, characteristic of tundra and taiga regions.
97 (283-287). Sand relief forms on a 1:25000 scale map are shown as contour lines, while the area occupied by sands is covered by the symbol of level sands. On maps of scales 1: 50,000 and 1: 100,000, horizontal lines are used to convey large sand relief forms; small sand relief forms are depicted with corresponding symbols.
When depicting ridge and dune sands, the conventional signs of the ridges should be located in accordance with their orientation on the ground, which depends on the direction of the prevailing winds. When depicting dune sands, the signs of the dunes with the concave side (horns) are oriented in the direction of the prevailing winds.
98. Examples of combinations of symbols of vegetation cover and soil given in tables No. 27-29 do not exhaust all possible options. When depicting small areas of vegetation and soil on maps, a combination of signs of more than three types is, as a rule, not allowed.
99 (289, 290). Vaguely defined boundaries of areas of vegetation cover and soils, on the image area of which background shading is given when publishing the map, are shown on the survey originals with a sparse dotted line in red, and on publishing originals - with a sparse dotted line in black, which is not printed during publication.
Borders and fences
100 (310). State boundaries are drawn with special care, in strict accordance with official materials establishing their position. When depicting state borders, first, border signs and tips are applied, and then links and points of a conventional border sign are placed between them. The length of individual links and the spaces between links may vary slightly if necessary.
101 (312-314). Boundaries that do not coincide with the contours of the area are depicted with the corresponding symbol without breaks. The axis of the symbol must correspond exactly to the actual position of the border. Boundaries running along rivers, canals, roads, dams, clearings, etc., are shown with gaps
you - in groups of links (three or four links), located, as a rule, in places where sharp turns of objects are depicted, but not less than every 4-6 cm.
The conventional sign of the border is shown on the side of the image of the object from which it actually passes; if the border coincides with any contour (except for that shown by the dotted line) and cannot be drawn in its place, then it is shown in groups of links alternately on both sides of the contour. The outline depicted by a dotted line is replaced by a conventional boundary sign.
Straight sections of boundaries are drawn along a ruler.
102 (315). The conventional sign of the boundaries of state reserves is drawn, as a rule, without breaks. The sign can be torn only in places where the border is a clear, clearly visible line (the shore of the sea, lake, large river).
Signature font samples
103. Tables No. 31-35 and samples of frame design show samples of fonts used for signatures, as well as their names and indices according to the “Album of Cartographic Fonts” (Geodezizdat, M., 1956 and 1957). The indices indicate the sizes of capital letters (in millimeters).
For captions of the names of individual parts of cities, captions of the second names of settlements and other geographical objects, as well as for captions of names placed outside the frames of map sheets, fonts are used that correspond in type to the fonts adopted for the main names, but lighter (lighter). The selection of such fonts is made according to the following table.
Font for signature of the main title
Font for signing the second title
Clear bold (4-132)
Clear narrowed bold (4-122)
Topographic bold (T-132)
Ancient italic bold (D-432)
Chopped wide bold (P-152)
Academic italic (A-431)
Clear (4-131)
Chopped (P-131)
Ancient italic core (Do-431)*
Chopped wide (P-151)
BSAM italic core 2 (Boa-431)
For the fonts Literary low-contrast (Lm-131) and BSAM italic low-contrast (Bm-431), lightweight fonts are not used; signatures of the second names are given in the same fonts.
The font sizes for signatures of secondary titles and signatures placed outside the frames of card sheets are, as a rule, taken to be one third smaller than the font sizes for signatures of the main titles.
For captions of the names of individual parts of the city, font sizes are selected depending on the size of the corresponding part of the city.
"Secondary names of settlements and other objects are given in brackets and are usually placed under the captions of the main names.
* The ancient italic skeleton font was made additionally after the publication of the “Album of Cartographic Fonts”.
104 (330-334). The font sizes for the names of rural and dacha settlements are indicated for moderately populated areas. For densely populated areas, according to the editor's decision, the font sizes of signatures of the names of individual gradations of settlements can be reduced, and for sparsely populated areas increased by 0.2-0.3 mm.
There are two font sizes for signatures of individual courtyard names. The names of individual courtyards remote from populated areas are signed in larger font; when there is a dense arrangement of courtyards, this font is used for captions of the names of courtyards that have the significance of landmarks.
105 (336). The Ancient Italic straight font of the size indicated in the table is also used for signatures. (crossing), pl. (platform), osg. n. (stopping point) in cases where the proper names of these objects are not given.
106 (337). If an explanatory signature is placed next to a symbol in the tables, this means that this symbol on maps, as a rule, must be accompanied by an explanatory caption, for example: the sign of an astronomical point (6) - the signature of an astr.; pier sign (185) - signed mountainist, etc. If several such homogeneous objects are located in a small area, then explanatory captions can be given only for images of the most important of them.
If an explanatory caption is not given in tables with a symbol, then on maps it is placed in cases where a particular object needs to be highlighted (for example, an object that is a good landmark).
107 (338, 344). Signatures of administrative centers (RS, SS, PS), the number of houses in settlements, as well as signatures and symbols indicating the presence of a particular object in a settlement are located below the signature of the name of the settlement, at a distance of 1 mm from it, and as symmetrical as possible.
108 (346, 347). With proper channel names, an abbreviated channel signature is given. (channel).
Scale of ink colors used for printing topographic maps at scales 1:25000, 1:50000, 1:100000
109. Table No. 36 gives a scale of ink colors used for printing topographic maps at scales 1: 25000, 1: 50000, 1: 100000. The table shows the names and numbers of the inks.
This scale should be used as a guide when preparing for publication and publishing maps.
Frame design samples
110. Drawing (engraving) of the frames of map sheets and the framing of publishing originals are carried out according to the attached samples.
The size of the map sheet together with the frame and border design in the north-south direction should not exceed 43.5 cm (on a scale of 1: 75000-58.0 cm).
111. When drawing originals on opaque materials, the rectangular grid lines are not drawn on the sheet itself (they are cut on the negatives during publication); When drawing (engraving) on transparent materials, the lines of the rectangular grid are drawn completely.
112. On the original sheets of maps, in the nine freest places, evenly distributed throughout the sheet, digitization of the intersections of the lines of the rectangular grid is given. One of the intersections (closest to the northwestern corner) is digitized in full (coordinate values are given in kilometers), the rest - with the last two digits.
113. On sheets of maps of scales 1: 50,000 and 1: 100,000, the intersection of the average meridian and parallel is shown and their digitization in degrees and minutes is given.
114. The frame of the card sheets is precisely divided into segments equal in degrees to one minute. The minute segments are shaded: odd in latitude, odd in longitude in the eastern hemisphere, even in the western hemisphere. Each minute segment is divided (by dots) into six parts of 10", with the exception of map sheets of scale 1: 100000, located within the latitudes of 60-76°, on which the minute segments on the northern and southern sides of the frame are divided into three parts (20" each). ), and those located north of the 76° parallel - into two parts (30" each). On the map sheets themselves, along the inner frame, the outputs of the minute divisions are marked with strokes 2 mm long. With the exception of the outputs of divisions that are multiples of 5", which on maps of scales 1:50 000 and 1:100,000 are given by 3 mm long strokes; individual outputs that would interfere with reading the map content are not drawn.
115. If the territory for which the map is being created is located in the Western Hemisphere, then in the northwestern corner of the sheet frame, to the right of the meridian longitude signature and at the same level with it, the signature west of Greenwich is placed;
Signature font - Chopped wide (P-151-2.0 s).
116. All elements of the northern and southern border design are placed from the outer frame at the distances specified in the frame design samples; The layout scale is located in the middle of the gap between the linear scale and the text of the output information.
117. If in the title of a map sheet, instead of the name of the main settlement, the name of some other geographical object is indicated, then it is given together with the corresponding nomenclature term (in a conventional abbreviation). Nomenclature terms with names are written with a lowercase letter, for example: LYSAYA, lake. ROUND, etc.
118. Outside the frame of the sheet (on the eastern side) various additional information is provided (about the geodetic basis, terrain passability, etc.), as well as additional symbols not provided for in these tables. The text part is given in Chopped wide font (P-151-1.8 s).
Conventional signs There are contour, linear and non-scale.
- Contour(area) signs lakes are shown, for example;
- Linear signs- rivers, roads, canals.
- Off-scale signs For example, wells and springs are marked on plans, and settlements, volcanoes, and waterfalls are marked on geographic maps.
Rice. 1. Examples of off-scale, linear and areal symbols
Rice. Basic symbols
Rice. Conventional signs of the area
Isolines
There is a separate category of symbols - isolines, i.e. lines connecting points with the same values of the depicted phenomena (Fig. 2). Lines of equal atmospheric pressure are called isobars, lines of equal air temperature - isotherms, lines of equal heights of the earth's surface - isohypses or horizontal lines.
Rice. 2. Examples of isolines
Mapping methods
To depict geographical phenomena on maps, various ways. By way of habitats show areas of distribution of natural or social phenomena, for example animals, plants, and some minerals. Traffic signs used to show sea currents, winds, and traffic flows. High-quality background show, for example, states on a political map, and quantitative background— division of a territory according to any quantitative indicator (Fig. 3).
Rice. 3. Cartographic methods: a - method of areas; b - traffic signs; c - method of high-quality background; d - quantitative background - dotted signs
To show the average magnitude of a phenomenon in any territory, it is most advisable to use the principle of equal intervals. One way to get the interval is to divide the difference between the largest and smallest indicator by five. For example, if the largest indicator is 100, the smallest is 25, the difference between them is 75, its 1/5 is -15, then the intervals will be: 25-40, 40-55, 55-70, 70-85 and 85-100 . When showing these intervals on a map, a lighter background or sparse shading depicts less intensity of the phenomenon, darker tones and dense shading depict greater intensity. This method of cartographic representation is called cartogram(Fig. 4).
Rice. 4. Examples of cartograms and map diagrams
To the method map diagrams are used to show the total magnitude of a phenomenon in a particular territory, for example, electricity production, the number of school students, fresh water reserves, the degree of arable land, etc. Map diagram called a simplified map that does not have a degree network.
Relief depiction on plans and maps
On maps and plans, the relief is shown using contour lines and elevation marks.
Horizontals, as you already know, are lines on a plan or map connecting points on the earth’s surface that have the same height above ocean level (absolute height) or above the level taken as a reference point (relative height).
Rice. 5. Image of the relief with horizontal lines
In order to depict a hill on a plan, you need to define it relative height, which shows how vertically one point on the earth’s surface is higher than another (Fig. 7).
Rice. 6. Image of a hill on a plane
Rice. 7. Determination of relative height
The relative height can be determined using a level. Level(from fr. niveau - level, level) - a device for determining the difference in height between several points. The device, usually mounted on a tripod, is equipped with a telescope adapted for rotation in a horizontal plane and a sensitive level.
Conduct hill leveling- this means taking measurements of its western, southern, eastern and northern slopes from the bottom to the top using a level and driving in pegs in the places where the level was installed (Fig. 8). Thus, four pegs will be driven in at the bottom of the hill, four at a height of 1 m from the ground if the height of the level is 1 m, etc. The last peg is driven in at the top of the hill. After this, the position of all the pegs is plotted on the area plan and a smooth line connects first all points that have a relative height of 1 m, then 2 m, etc.
Rice. 8. Leveling a hill
Please note: if the slope is steep, the horizontal lines on the plan will be located close to each other, but if it is gentle, they will be far from each other.
Small lines drawn perpendicular to the horizontal lines are berg strokes. They show in which direction the slope goes down.
Horizontal lines on the plans depict not only hills, but also depressions. In this case, the berg strokes are turned inward (Fig. 9).
Rice. 9. Depiction of various relief forms by horizontal lines
Steep slopes of cliffs or ravines are indicated on maps by small teeth.
The height of a point above mean ocean level is called absolute height. In Russia, all absolute heights are calculated from the level of the Baltic Sea. Thus, the territory of St. Petersburg is located above the water level in the Baltic Sea by an average of 3 m, the territory of Moscow - by 120 m, and the city of Astrakhan is below this level by 26 m. Elevation marks on geographical maps indicate the absolute height of the points.
On a physical map, the relief is depicted using layer-by-layer coloring, that is, with colors of different intensities. For example, areas with a height from 0 to 200 m are painted green. At the bottom of the map there is a table from which you can see which color corresponds to which height. This table is called height scale.
guidelines
additional education teacher
1.Topography………………………………………………………………………………………4
Assignments on the topic “Topography”………………………………………………………..6
2. Orientation………………………………………………………………...…9
Assignments on the topic “Orientation”…………………………………………………………...…12
Assignments on the topic “Compass”…………………………………………………………….15
References………………………………………………………………………………….....16
Applications……………………………………………………………………………….........17
Appendix 1. Glossary of terms…………………………………………………….17
Appendix 2. Conventional topographical signs…………………………………..19
Appendix 3. Educational topographic maps…………………………………..20
Explanatory note
The ability to navigate the terrain is important for any person, and even more so for a tourist.
A tourist has to navigate all the time, using a map, a compass, even a watch for this. In addition, you need knowledge of how to navigate by various local signs and objects, by the Sun and stars.
For novice tourists, the basics are the ability to work with a compass and map, without which no tourist trip is complete.
Tasks:
Describe tasks for mastering theoretical knowledge and consolidating practical skills on the topics “topography”;
Describe tasks for mastering theoretical knowledge and consolidating practical skills on the topic “orienteering”.
The tasks offered to teachers are designed for students aged 7-10 years, compiled according to the additional educational program “Health and Educational Tourism” and will allow you to diversify the theoretical and practical classes of thematic sections devoted to the study of topography and orienteering.
Methodological recommendations are addressed to teachers of additional education who carry out their activities in the field of tourism and local history.
During the lesson, various forms of organizing educational and training activities can be used: with the full composition of the training group, in subgroups, differentiated, taking into account the individual capabilities and abilities of students.
Topography
Orientation by plan and maps
PLAN –
How, for example, do you draw a table plan? You need to look at it from above. You will see a rectangle - this is the table plan. But it cannot be drawn as large as it is. Many objects are so large that their drawing and plan must be made much smaller.
Measure the length and width of the table and write down the numbers. For example, you got: length 100 cm, width 60 cm. Reduce both numbers, for example, by 4 times (or by 10 times). The numbers will be much lower. Now you can draw a scaled down plan of the table. In a reduced form, plans are drawn according to a conventional reduced measure.
A reduced measure, which when drawing is conventionally taken for some larger measure, is called SCALE.
Usually the scale is a centimeter, which is conventionally taken to be a meter or a kilometer.
MAP
The most accurate among them are topographical. Often tourists have to deal with tourist maps, where everything that is encountered along the way is sketched using conventional signs.
Conventional signs are the alphabet, knowledge of which is necessary to read the map. You need to know the most common topographical signs, be able to find them on a map and be able to draw them. In addition, you need to be able to draw a plan diagram of your school yard, the streets where the Tourist Station is located, where you study.
See how some topographical signs are sketched:
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|
|
building |
plant or factory |
Bridge over river |
w  osse |
dirt road |
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 |
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|
path |
clearing |
river |
lake |
reed thickets |
|
|
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|
 |
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|
deciduous tree |
conifer tree |
mixed forest |
burnt forest (dead wood) |
sparse forest |
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 |
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|
cut down forest |
fallen forest (windfall) |
bush thickets |
meadow |
ravine |
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     |
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|
|
pits |
mounds, hills |
passable swamp |
impassable swamp |
spring |
In Appendix 2 you can see how other signs are depicted on topographic maps.
Assignments on the topic “Topography”
Task No. 1.
Draw a plan for your classroom, measuring its length and width. Use a scale of 1 x 100.
Task No. 2.
Draw a plan diagram of the classroom, depicting all the objects in it (cabinets, tables and chairs).
Task No. 3.
Draw a plan diagram of the area adjacent to your house.
Task No. 4.
Draw up a plan diagram of the area adjacent to your school or Tourist Station.
Tasks No. 1-4 can be used as educational training at the initial stage of students’ knowledge formation for collective group work. Later, when children’s knowledge can be called established, it should be consolidated in work in subgroups. For example: some draw the area on the right, others on the left, then the subgroups check each other’s work. If necessary, they correct it. For third-year students, these assignments can be given as individual work.
Task No. 5.
Write what the sign means
(that is, its name)
___________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
Task No. 6.
Connect the sign with its name with an arrow
|
Deforested forest Building Path |
Task No. 7.
Draw the appropriate symbol
Pit______________________________
Coniferous forest______________________________
Bridge over river____________________
Clearing____________________
Task No. 8.
Fill the empty windows
|
SPRING highway
|
RAVINETask No. 9.
Topographic dictation.
On Sunday evening our whole class went on a hike. Having reached our stop, we walked through the last city buildings, and went along highway. Then the highway led us to dirt road. Along it we went to mixed forest, passed through wooden bridge small river. And we had lunch on the shore lakes. After lunch we climbed to the top hill, at the base of which, on the northern side, a thick coniferous forest, and the southern side of the hill was cut by a deep ravine, the bottom of which overgrown thick bush.
From the resting place to path through birch grove we went home. Crossed first railway, then high voltage line and along the big fields went to country road, outputting to our bridge over the river. Coming soon highway And separate buildings on the edge of town
Although everyone was very tired, they were happy with their walk!
Task No. 10.
Compose a topographical dictation using your knowledge of topographical symbols. Write a fairy tale telling about the journey of a fairy-tale hero.
For example, about a kolobok. What roads and forests did he roll along, what did he see on his way, what obstacles did he overcome?
Orientation
For novice tourists, the basics are the ability to work with a compass and map, without which no tourist trip is complete.
At school lessons in natural history or the surrounding world, students learn what a HORIZON, SIDE OF A HORIZON, COMPASS, MAP, SCALE is. The task of the additional education teacher is to expand and consolidate this knowledge in practice.
All natural phenomena: rain, thunderstorm, fog, snow, blizzard - occur in space. In the city, at a distance from each other there are houses, plants, factories, and institutions. And in the forest there are trees, bushes, grass. All these objects are also located in space.
The space visible around us is called HORIZON.
The boundary of visible space, where the sky seems to converge with the surface of the earth, is called HORIZONT LINE.
If a person moves forward, the horizon line will constantly move away from him. It is impossible to reach or reach the horizon line.
On a flat place, open on all sides, the horizon line has the shape of a circle.
In the city, it is difficult to trace the horizon line, because it is hidden from our eyes by houses, and in the forest - by trees.
R 
there are fourmain sides of the horizon
: NORTH SOUTH, WEST EAST.
In a picture or drawing they are abbreviated with initial letters: north - N, south - S, west - W, east - E.
In addition to the main sides of the horizon, there are also intermediate:
M 
between the north and the east - northeast(SV),
between south and east – southeast(SE),
between north and west - northwest(NW),
between south and west - southwest(SW).
On maps, diagrams and drawings, it is conventional to indicate at the top of the sheet - north, at the bottom - south, on the left - west, on the right - east.
Find your bearings- means finding the direction of the sides of the horizon and your location relative to surrounding local objects.
How to determine your location?
To do this, you need to know how known objects are located - landmarks (buildings, trees, etc.) relative to the sides of the horizon.
If you know how to navigate, then you will always correctly determine in which direction you need to move in order to get to the right place.
Determining the sides of the horizon by the Sun
Remember which side you see the sun from when you wake up early in the morning and when you go to bed in the evening. Do you remember?Now remember how to use the multiplication table Several important rules for determining the sides of the horizon by the Sun:
The sun is always V goes down to V East,
Z The sun always comes h appade.
At 12 noon (i.e., noon), the Sun is in the south, and the midday shadow of objects is directed to the north.
Remember: You can determine the sides of the horizon by the sun only during the day and only in clear weather.
Determining the sides of the horizon using a compass
TO 
compass
Using a compass, you can accurately determine the sides of the horizon both day and night, in any weather.
Nowadays, not a single traveler, pilot, or navigator can do without a compass. Therefore, if you are going to go on a hike with a group, you need to have a compass and know how it works, and be able to use this device.
The picture shows liquid compass "Sport-3":
1 - magnetic needle; 2- reservoir with liquid (“flask”); 3- scale scale;
4 - guide lines;5- limb, signed in degrees; 6- risks for determining the direction of movement;7- millimeter scale;8 - magnifyingglass; 9 -pedometer washer.
There are different types of compasses: air and liquid. But they work the same.
Every compass has a magnetized needle. It is placed on a point and rotates freely. It happens that the ends of the arrow are painted in different colors (red and blue). And other compasses have just an arrow.
So here it is the compass works like this that is magnetized the arrow always points north. And if one of you has a red - blue arrow, then the blue half always points to the north, and the red half to the south.
The compass needle is placed in a special round box - a flask. At the bottom of the box or around it there is a circle with divisions, on which the letters C, Y, B, Z, as well as numbers are written. The letters indicate the sides of the horizon, and the numbers, as in mathematics, indicate the angle from 0 degrees to 360, thus reflecting the earth's surface. Each 90 degrees corresponds to its own direction: North is 0 or 360 degrees, East is 90 degrees, South is 180 degrees, West is 270 degrees.
Remember: A compass can only help those who know how to use it.
To determine the direction using a compass, place it on a flat horizontal surface. For example, on a table or chair. You can put the compass on the palm of your hand (while walking, hiking), but always horizontally. When the arrow calms down, it points to the North. Therefore, you can carefully turn the circle with letters and numbers so that the letter C (number 0) is opposite the end of the arrow, where it points. If you stand facing the direction that the compass points, north will be in front, south behind, west on the left , on the right - east.
If you learn to correctly and quickly determine the main sides of the horizon, then it will be easy for you to understand where the intermediate sides of the horizon are and what the numbers around the bulb with the arrow mean.
Determining the sides of the horizon based on local characteristics
It turns out that if a person is observant, he will not get lost in an unfamiliar (unfamiliar) area even without a compass.
He will determine the sides of the horizon based on local natural features:
1. By trees that stand separately;
2. Along anthills near a tree;
3. By the annual rings of a cut tree (by a stump).
In isolated trees, the bark on the north side is always rougher than on the south. And the tree crown (branches) is thicker on the south side. This is especially noticeable on birch trees, whose trunks on the south side are much lighter than on the north. In addition, mosses and lichens grow at the base of trees, mainly on the north side of the trunks.
If you come across an anthill near a tree, it can also show where north is and where south is. Ants usually build their home on the south side of trees, stumps, and stones.
If you see a stump, take a closer look at its annual rings. Where the distance between them is clearly visible is south, and where the annual rings are tightly pressed together is north.
Assignments on the topic “Orientation”
To consolidate the material covered, you can offer students the following tasks:
Task No. 1.
Write down the definitions.
A) The horizon is __________________________________________________________
B) The horizon line is _________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________.
Task No. 2.
List the main sides of the horizon.
_______________________________________________________________________.
Task No. 3.
Indicate on the diagram the main sides of the horizon.
Task No. 4.
Indicate on the diagram the main and intermediate sides of the horizon.
Task No. 5.
Fill in the blanks.
A) If you stand facing north, there will be __________________________ behind, __________________ to the left, ___________________________ to the right.
B) If you stand facing south, then behind you there will be ______________________, on the left - __________________, on the right - ___________________________.
C) If you stand facing west, there will be __________________________ behind, _________________ to the left, _______________________ to the right.
D) If you stand facing east, there will be _________________________ behind, _________________ to the left, ___________ to the right.
Such tasks force children to think logically, which contributes to the formation of spatial thinking. You can use task No. 5 as a game - exercise. Form a circle, the leader (first the teacher, later the children themselves) stands in a circle and asks questions, each player who forms the circle answers. The one who answers incorrectly is eliminated from the game and leaves the circle.
Task No. 6.
Write the symbols for the opposite sides of the horizon.
a) N - B – b) NE - NW -
W - S - SW - SE -
Task No. 7.
Draw what natural features can be used to determine the sides of the horizon.
Drawings can be very diverse: trees that stand alone; anthills near a tree; stump, annual rings of a cut tree.
Task No. 8.
Look at the boys' trip plan.
The guys went from school first to the northeast, then to the north, then to the east and reached the forester’s house.
Think about how the direction of movement of the guys will change on the way back. Make a diagram of the return route.
Assignments on the topic “Compass”
Task No. 1.
Point out the parts of the compass with arrows
MAGNETIC NEEDLE
FRAME
FUSE
Task No. 2.
Mark on the compass the main and intermediate sides of the horizon.
Bibliography
1. Katyushin, V. A. Mosin S. I. Hunter, fisherman, tourist [Text]/ V.A. Katyushin, S.I. Mosin. – Kemerovo: Pritomskoye Publishing House, 1997.-56 p.
3. Melchakov, L.F. Skatkin M. N. Natural history [Text]: textbook. for 3, 5 grades. avg. school / Authors-comp. L.F. Melchakov, M.N. Skatkin. – 8th ed. – M.: Education, 1992.-186 p.
4. Pleshakov, A. A. Nature [Text]: textbook for elementary school / Author-comp. A.A. Pleshakov. - Ulyanovsk: Publishing house “Ventana – Graf”, 1995.- 135 p.
5. Pleshanov, E. A. Me + Nature [Text]: educational and reference manual / E.A. Pleshanov. – Voronezh, 1997.-206 p.
6. Shelegin, N. N. A book about how to protect yourself and others from various troubles and always be healthy and strong [Text]: the basics of life safety [Text]: a textbook for elementary school students / N.N. Shelegin. – Novosibirsk: Novosibirsk University Publishing House, 1997.-84 p.
Annex 1
Glossary of terms
1. AZIMUTH - horizontal angle, measured clockwise from the northern direction of the meridian to a given direction (object, landmark) in the range from 0 to 360 degrees.
2. HORIZON- visible space around us .
3. SKYLINE- the boundary of visible space, where the sky seems to converge with the surface of the earth.
4. MAP– this is a reduced image of the earth’s surface, made to a certain scale. There are many types of cards.
5. COMPASS- This is a device for determining the sides of the horizon.
6. SCALE- a reduced measure, which when drawing is conventionally taken for some larger measure.
7 .PLAN – This is a drawing of individual objects, premises, and terrain. On a plan, an object is depicted as it appears when viewed from above.
8. SPORTS CARD – a map used in orienteering competitions, which is a flat graphic image of the area reduced many times, made using special symbols. A distinctive feature of modern sports cards is high accuracy and detail. They display All paths, paths, individual buildings, i.e. all objects and natural formations present in the area.
9. Topographic map - an accurate reduced image of the earth's surface, made on a certain scale and using conventional symbols.
10. – special signs indicating objects of animate and inanimate nature on topographic maps. For a tourist, this is the alphabet, knowledge of which is necessary to read a map. There are three types of signs: large-scale, non-scale, explanatory.
Large-scale conventional signs– signs depicting local objects (settlements, areas of forest, arable land, lakes, swamps, large rivers), which in size can be expressed on a map scale. The external boundaries of such local objects are shown on the map with solid lines (lakes, rivers) or dots (contours of forests, meadows, swamps) in exact accordance with the actual contours on the ground. The area inside the contour on the map is covered with paint of the appropriate color or filled with symbols.
Off-scale symbols- signs depicting local objects that cannot be expressed on the map scale, but are important: wells in the desert, wintering in the taiga, etc. These local objects are depicted enlarged on maps.
Explanatory symbols – signs that give additional characteristics to local objects using numbers, proper names of objects and signatures. For example, if there is an image of a deciduous tree in the outline of a forest, then this shows that the forest is deciduous. The species, height, diameter and density of trees is indicated by the entry (birch, height -25 m, diameter -0.28 m, distance between trees - 5 m). Alphanumeric designations and signatures are used for quantitative and qualitative characteristics of local objects.
Appendix 2
Conventional topographic signs
Appendix 3
Educational topographic maps
Topic 8. CARTOGRAPHICAL SYMBOLS
8.1. CLASSIFICATION OF CONVENTIONAL SIGNS
On maps and plans, the image of terrain objects (situations) is presented in cartographic symbols. Cartographic symbols
- a system of symbolic graphic notations used to depict various objects and phenomena, their qualitative and quantitative characteristics on maps. Symbols are sometimes also called "map legend".
For ease of reading and memorization, many symbols have outlines that resemble the top or side view of the local objects they depict. For example, symbols of factories, oil rigs, isolated trees, and bridges are similar in shape to the appearance of the listed local objects.
Cartographic symbols are usually divided into scale (contour), non-scale and explanatory (Fig. 8.1). In some textbooks, linear symbols are classified as a separate group.
Rice. 8.1. Types of symbols
Large-scale
(contour) signs are conventional signs used to fill the areas of objects expressed on the scale of a plan or map. From a plan or map, using such a sign, you can determine not only the location of the object, but its size and outline.
The boundaries of area objects on the plan can be depicted with solid lines of different colors: black (buildings and structures, fences, roads, etc.), blue (reservoirs, rivers, lakes), brown (natural landforms), light pink (streets and areas in populated areas), etc. The dotted line is used for the boundaries of agricultural and natural land in the area, the boundaries of embankments and excavations near roads. The boundaries of clearings, tunnels and some structures are indicated by a simple dotted line. The fill characters inside the outline are arranged in a specific order.
Linear symbols(a type of large-scale symbols) are used when depicting linear objects - roads, power lines, borders, etc. The location and planned outline of the axis of a linear object are depicted accurately on the map, but their width is significantly exaggerated. For example, a highway symbol on maps at a scale of 1:100,000 exaggerates its width by 8 to 10 times.
If an object on a plan (map) cannot be expressed by a scale symbol due to its smallness, then off-scale
symbol, for example, a boundary sign, a separately growing tree, a kilometer pole, etc. The exact position of an object on the ground is shown main point
off-scale symbol. The main point is:
- for signs of symmetrical shape - in the center of the figure (Fig. 8.2);
- for signs with a wide base - in the middle of the base (Fig. 8.3);
- for signs that have a base in the form of a right angle, at the apex of the angle (Fig. 8.4);
- for signs that are a combination of several figures, in the center of the lower figure (Fig. 8.5).
Rice. 8.2. Symmetrical signs
1 - points of the geodetic network; 2 - points of the survey network, fixed on the ground by centers; 3 - astronomical points; 4 - churches; 5 - plants, factories and mills without pipes; 6 - power plants; 7 - water mills and sawmills; 8 - fuel warehouses and gas tanks; 9 - active mines and adits; 10 - oil and gas wells without derricks
Rice. 8.3. Wide base signs
1 - factory and factory pipes; 2 - waste heaps; 3 - telegraph and radiotelegraph offices and departments, telephone exchanges; 4 - meteorological stations; 5 - semaphores and traffic lights; 6 - monuments, monuments, mass graves, tours and stone pillars more than 1 m high; 7 - Buddhist monasteries; 8 - separately lying stones
Rice. 8.4. Signs with a base in the form of a right angle
1 - wind engines; 2 - gas stations and gas stations; 3 - windmills; 4 - permanent river signaling signs;
5 - free-standing deciduous trees; 6 - free-standing coniferous trees
Rice. 8.5. Signs that are a combination of several figures
1 - plants, factories and mills with pipes; 2 - transformer booths; 3 - radio stations and television centers; 4 - oil and gas rigs; 5 - tower-type structures; 6 - chapels; 7 - mosques; 8 - radio masts and television masts; 9 - kilns for burning lime and charcoal; 10 - mazars, suborgans (religious buildings)
Objects expressed by off-scale symbols serve as good landmarks on the ground.
Explanatory symbols
(Fig. 8.6, 8.7) are used in combination with large-scale and non-scale; they serve to further characterize local items and their varieties. For example, an image of a coniferous or deciduous tree in combination with a conventional forest sign shows the dominant tree species in it, an arrow on a river indicates the direction of its flow, and transverse strokes on a railway symbol indicate the number of tracks.
Rice. 8.6. Explanatory symbols of a bridge, highway, river
Rice. 8.7. Characteristics of forest stands
In the numerator of the fraction - the average height of trees in meters, in the denominator - the average thickness of trunks, to the right of the fraction - the average distance between trees
The maps contain signatures of the proper names of settlements, rivers, lakes, mountains, forests and other objects, as well as explanatory signatures in the form of alphabetic and numerical designations. They allow us to obtain additional information about the quantitative and qualitative characteristics of local objects and relief. Lettered explanatory signatures are most often given in abbreviated form according to the established list of conventional abbreviations.
For a more visual representation of the terrain on maps, each group of symbols related to the same type of terrain elements (vegetation cover, hydrography, relief, etc.) is printed with paint of a certain color.
8.2. CONVENTIONAL SIGNS OF LOCAL OBJECTS
Settlements
on topographic maps of scales 1:25,000 - 1:100,000 show everything (Fig. 8.8). Next to the image of the settlement, its name is signed: cities - in capital letters of a straight font, and a rural settlement - in lowercase letters of a smaller font. Under the name of a rural settlement, the number of houses is indicated (if known), and if they have district and village councils, their abbreviated signature (PC, CC).
The names of urban and holiday villages are printed on maps in capital letters in italic font. When depicting settlements on maps, their external outlines and the nature of the layout are preserved, main and through passages, industrial enterprises, outstanding buildings and other buildings that have landmark significance are identified.
Wide streets and squares, depicted on the map scale, are shown with large-scale symbols in accordance with their actual size and configuration, other streets - with conventional out-of-scale symbols, main (main) streets are highlighted on the map with a wider clearance.
Rice. 8.8. Settlements
Populated areas are depicted in the most detail on maps at scales of 1:25,000 and 1:50,000. Blocks with predominant fire-resistant and non-fire-resistant buildings are painted over with the appropriate color. As a rule, all buildings located on the outskirts of populated areas are shown.
The map at a scale of 1: 100,000 basically preserves the image of all main streets, industrial facilities and the most important objects that are landmarks. Individual buildings within blocks are shown only in settlements with very sparse buildings, for example, in dacha-type settlements.
When depicting all other settlements, buildings are combined into blocks and filled with black paint; the fire resistance of buildings on the 1:100,000 map is not highlighted.
Selected local items
significant landmarks are plotted on the map most accurately. Such local objects include various towers and towers, mines and adits, wind turbines, churches and separate buildings, radio masts, monuments, individual trees, mounds, rock outcrops, etc. All of them, as a rule, are depicted on maps conventional out-of-scale signs, and some are accompanied by abbreviated explanatory captions. For example, signature check yy. with the sign of a mine means that the mine is coal.
Rice. 8.9. Selected local items
Road network
on topographic maps it is depicted in full and detail. Railways are shown on maps and divided according to the number of tracks (single-, double- and triple-track), gauge (normal and narrow-gauge) and condition (operating, under construction and dismantled). Electrified railways are distinguished by special symbols. The number of tracks is indicated by dashes perpendicular to the axis of the conventional road sign: three dashes - three-track, two - double-track, one - single-track.
On railways they show stations, sidings, platforms, depots, track posts and booths, embankments, excavations, bridges, tunnels, semaphores and other structures. The proper names of the station (passings, platforms) are signed next to their symbols. If the station is located in or near a populated area and has the same name as it, then its signature is not given, but the name of this populated area is emphasized. The black rectangle inside the station symbol indicates the location of the station relative to the tracks: if the rectangle is located in the middle, then the tracks run on both sides of the station.
Rice. 8.10. Railway stations and structures
Symbols for platforms, checkpoints, booths and tunnels are accompanied by corresponding abbreviated captions ( pl., bl. p., B, tun.). Next to the symbol of the tunnel, in addition, its numerical characteristic is placed in the form of a fraction, the numerator of which indicates the height and width, and the denominator - the length of the tunnel in meters.
Road
And ground
roads
When depicted on maps, they are divided into paved and unpaved roads. Paved roads include freeways, improved highways, highways, and improved unpaved roads. Topographic maps show all paved roads in the area. The width and surface material of motorways and highways are indicated directly on their symbols. For example, on the highway the signature 8(12)A means: 8
- width of the covered part of the road in meters; 12
- width of the road from ditch to ditch; A- coating material (asphalt). On improved dirt roads, usually only a label is given for the width of the road from ditch to ditch. Freeways, improved highways, and highways are highlighted in orange on maps, improved dirt roads - yellow or orange.
Figure 8.11. Highways and dirt roads
Topographic maps show unpaved dirt (country) roads, field and forest roads, caravan routes, trails and winter roads. If there is a dense network of roads of a higher class, some secondary roads (field, forest, dirt) on maps of scales 1:200,000, 1:100,000, and sometimes 1:50,000 may not be shown.
Sections of dirt roads passing through wetlands, lined with bundles of brushwood (fascines) on wooden beds and then covered with a layer of earth or sand, are called fascines sections of roads. If on such sections of roads, instead of fascines, a flooring of logs (poles) or simply an embankment of earth (stones) is made, then they are called ruts and rowings, respectively. Fascinal sections of roads, roads and boats are indicated on maps by dashes perpendicular to the conventional sign of the road.
On highways and dirt roads they show bridges, pipes, embankments, excavations, tree plantings, kilometer posts and passes (in mountainous areas).
Bridges
depicted on maps with symbols of different designs depending on the material (metal, reinforced concrete, stone and wood); In this case, two-tier bridges, as well as drawbridges and drawbridges, are distinguished. Bridges on floating supports are distinguished by a special symbol. Next to the symbols of bridges having a length of 3 m or more, and located on roads (except for highways and improved highways), their numerical characteristics are signed in the form of a fraction, the numerator of which indicates the length and width of the bridge in meters, and the denominator - the load capacity in tons Before the fraction, indicate the material from which the bridge is built, as well as the height of the bridge above the water level in meters (on navigable rivers). For example, the signature next to the bridge symbol (Fig. 8.12) means that the bridge is made of stone (material of construction), the numerator is the length and width of the roadway in meters, the denominator is the load capacity in tons.
Rice. 8.12. Overpass over the railway
When designating bridges on freeways and improved highways, only their length and width are given. Characteristics of bridges less than 3 m long are not given.
8.3. HYDROGRAPHY (WATER BODIES)
Topographic maps show the coastal part of the seas, lakes, rivers, canals (ditches), streams, wells, springs, ponds and other bodies of water. Their names are written next to them. The larger the map scale, the more detailed water bodies are depicted.
Lakes, ponds and other bodies of water shown on maps if their area is 1 mm2 or more on the map scale. Smaller bodies of water are shown only in arid and desert areas, as well as in cases where they serve as reliable landmarks.
Rice. 8.13. Hydrography
Rivers, streams, canals and main ditches Topographic maps show everything. It has been established that on maps of scales 1:25,000 and 1:50,000, rivers up to 5 m wide, and on maps of scale 1:100,000 - up to 10 m are indicated by one line, wider rivers - by two lines. Channels and ditches with a width of 3 m or more are depicted by two lines, and those less than 3 m wide - by one.
Width and depth of rivers (channels) in meters is written as a fraction: the numerator is the width, the denominator is the depth and nature of the bottom soil. Such signatures are placed in several places along the river (canal).
River flow speed (m/s), represented by two lines, point in the middle of the arrow showing the direction of the flow. On rivers and lakes, the height of the water level during low-water periods in relation to sea level (water edge marks) is also indicated.
Shown on rivers and canals dams, gateways, ferries (transportation), fords and give the corresponding characteristics.
Wells denoted by blue circles next to which a letter is placed TO or signature art. To. (artesian well).
Ground water pipelines are shown by solid blue lines with dots (every 8 mm), and underground ones by broken lines.
To make it easier to find and select water supply sources on the map in steppe and desert areas, the main wells are marked with a larger symbol. In addition, if there is data, an explanatory signature of the ground level mark is given to the left of the symbol of the well, and to the right - the depth of the well in meters and the filling rate in liters per hour.
8.4. SOIL AND VEGETATION COVER
Soil
-vegetable
cover
are usually depicted on maps with large-scale symbols. These include conventional signs for forests, shrubs, gardens, parks, meadows, swamps and salt marshes, as well as conventional signs depicting the nature of the soil cover: sand, rocky surface, pebbles, etc. When designating soil and vegetation cover, a combination of conventional symbols is often used signs. For example, in order to show a swampy meadow with bushes, the area occupied by the meadow is marked with a contour, inside which the symbols of swamp, meadow and bushes are placed.
The contours of areas covered with forests and shrubs, as well as the contours of swamps and meadows, are indicated on maps by dotted lines. If the boundary of a forest, garden or other land is a linear local object (ditch, fence, road), then in this case the symbol of a linear local object replaces the dotted line.
Forest, bushes. The area of the forest inside the contour is painted over with green paint. The tree species is shown with the icon deciduous, coniferous, or a combination of both when the forest is mixed. If there is data on the height, thickness of trees and density of the forest, its characteristics are indicated with explanatory captions and numbers. For example, the caption indicates that coniferous trees (pine) predominate in this forest, their average height is 25 m, the average thickness is 30 cm, the average distance between tree trunks is 4 m. When depicting clearings on a map, their width is indicated in meters.
Rice. 8.14. Forests
Rice. 8.15. Shrubs
Swamps are depicted on maps with horizontal blue shading, dividing them according to the degree of passability on foot into passable (intermittent shading), difficult to pass and impassable (solid shading). Swamps with a depth of no more than 0.6 m are considered passable; their depth is usually not indicated on maps.
Rice. 8.16. Swamps
The depth of impassable and impassable swamps is written next to the vertical arrow indicating the location of the measurement. Difficult and impassable swamps are shown on maps with the same symbol.
Salt marshes on maps they are shown with vertical blue shading, dividing them into passable (intermittent shading) and impassable (solid shading).
On topographic maps, as their scale becomes smaller, homogeneous topographic symbols are combined into groups, the latter into one generalized symbol, etc. In general, the system of these symbols can be represented in the form of a truncated pyramid, at the base of which there are signs for topographic plans at a scale of 1:500, and at the top - for survey topographic maps at a scale of 1:1,000,000.
8.5. COLORS OF TOPOGRAPHICAL SIGNS
Colors
topographic symbols are the same for maps of all scales. Line marks of lands and their contours, buildings, structures, local objects, strong points and boundaries are printed upon publication black color, relief elements - brown; reservoirs, watercourses, swamps and glaciers - blue(mirror of water - light blue); area of trees and shrubs - green(dwarf forests, dwarf trees, shrubs, vineyards - light green), neighborhoods with fire-resistant buildings and highways - orange, neighborhoods with non-fire-resistant buildings and improved dirt roads - yellow.
Along with topographic symbols for topographic maps, conventional abbreviations of proper names
political and administrative units (for example, Lugansk region - Lug.) and explanatory terms (for example, power plant - el.-st., southwestern - SW, working village - r.p.).
8.6. CARTOGRAPHIC FONT USED ON TOPOGRAPHIC PLANS AND MAPS
A font is a graphic design of letters and numbers. The fonts used on topographic maps and maps are called cartographic.
Depending on a number of graphic features, cartographic fonts are divided into groups:
- according to the inclination of the letters - straight (ordinary) and italic with inclinations to the right and left;
- according to the width of the letters - narrow, normal and wide;
- according to lightness - light, semi-bold and bold;
- by the presence of hooks.
On topographic maps and plans, two types of basic fonts are mainly used: topographic and outline italics (Fig. 8.17).
Rice. 8.17. Core fonts and cursive writing of numbers
Topographic (hair) font
T-132 is used for signing rural settlements. It is drawn with a line thickness of 0.1-0.15 mm, all elements of the letters are thin hairlines.
Blank italics
is used in the design of topographic maps, agricultural maps, land management maps, etc. On topographic maps, explanatory captions and characteristics are written in italics: astronomical points, ruins, plants, factories, stations, etc. The design of the letters has a pronounced oval shape . The thickness of all elements is the same: 0.1 - 0.2 mm.
Computing font
or cursive writing of numbers, belongs to the group of cursive fonts. It was designed for recording in field journals and calculation sheets, since in geodesy many processes of field and office work were associated with recording the results of instrumental measurements and their mathematical processing (see Fig. 8.17).
Modern computer technologies provide a wide, almost unlimited selection of fonts of different types, sizes, designs and slants.
8.7. INSTRUCTIONS ON TOPOGRAPHICAL PLANS AND MAPS
In addition to conventional signs, topographic plans and maps contain various inscriptions. They constitute an important element of content, explain the objects depicted, indicate their qualitative and quantitative characteristics, and serve to obtain reference information.
According to their meaning, the inscriptions are:
- proper names of geographical objects (cities, rivers, lakes
and etc.); - part of a symbol (vegetable garden, arable land);
- conventional signs and proper names at the same time (signatures of names of cities, hydrographic objects, relief);
- explanatory captions (lake, mountain, etc.);
- explanatory text (convey information about the distinctive features of objects, specify their nature and purpose) (Fig. 8.18).
The inscriptions on the cards are made in various fonts with different letter patterns. Maps can use up to 15 different fonts. The letter design of each font has elements unique to that font, which is based on knowledge of the features of various fonts.
For groups of related objects, certain fonts are used. For example, roman fonts are used for the names of cities, italic fonts are used for the names of hydrographic objects, etc. Each inscription on the map should be clearly readable.
There are distinctive features in the arrangement of the inscriptions of proper names. The names of settlements are located on the right side of the outline parallel to the north or south side of the map frame. This position is most desirable, but not always feasible. The names should not cover the images of other objects and should not be placed within the map frame, so it is necessary to place the names to the left, above and below the outline of the settlement.
Rice. 8.18. Examples of inscriptions on maps
The names of area objects are placed inside the contours so that the label is evenly distributed over the entire area of the object. The name of the river is placed parallel to its bed. Depending on the width of the river, the inscription is placed inside or outside the contour. It is customary to sign large rivers several times: at their sources, at characteristic bends, at the confluence of rivers, etc. When one river flows into another, the name inscriptions are placed so that there is no doubt about the name of the rivers. Before the merger, the main river and its tributary are signed; after the merger, the name of the main river is required.
When placing inscriptions that are not horizontal, special attention is paid to their readability. The following rule is followed: if the elongated contour along which the inscription should be placed is located from northwest to southeast, then the inscription is placed from top to bottom, if the contour stretches from north-east to southwest, then the inscription is placed from bottom to top.
The names of seas and large lakes are placed inside the contours of the basins along a smooth curve, in the direction of their length and symmetrically to the shores. Inscriptions of small lakes are placed like inscriptions of settlements.
The names of mountains are placed, if possible, to the right of the top of the mountains and parallel to the southern or northern frame. The names of mountain ranges, sand formations and deserts are written in the direction of their extent.
Explanatory inscriptions are placed parallel to the north side of the frame.
Numerical characteristics are arranged depending on the nature of the information they convey. The number of houses in rural settlements, the heights of the earth's surface and the water's edge are signed parallel to the north or south side of the frame. The speed of the river flow, the width of the roads and their covering material are located along the axis of the object.
Labels should be placed in the least crowded places on the cartographic image so that there is no doubt about which object they refer to. Inscriptions should not cross river confluences, characteristic relief details, or images of objects that have landmark values.
Basic rules for constructing cartographic fonts: http://www.topogis.ru/oppks.html
Questions and tasks for self-control
- What are symbols?
- What types of symbols do you know?
- What objects are depicted on maps with large-scale symbols?
- What objects are depicted on maps using out-of-scale symbols?
- What is the purpose of the main point of an out-of-scale symbol?
- Where is the main point located on the off-scale symbol?
- For what purposes are color schemes used on cards?
- For what purposes are explanatory captions and digital symbols used on maps?
Symbols of topographic maps provide complete information about the area. They are generally accepted and used for topographic maps and plans. Topographic maps are important material not only for tourists, but also for geodetic organizations, for authorities who are involved in area planning and transfer of site boundaries.
Knowledge about conventional signs helps not only to read the map correctly, but also to draw up detailed plans of the area, taking into account new objects that have appeared.
Topographic maps are a type of geographic map. They carry detailed information about the layout of the area, indicating the location of various technical and natural objects relative to each other.
Topographic maps vary in scope. All of them carry less or more detailed information about the area.
The map scale is indicated on the side or bottom of the map. It shows the ratio of sizes: indicated on the map to natural. Thus, the larger the denominator, the less detailed the material. Let's say a 1:10,000 map will have 100 meters in 1 centimeter. To find out the distance in meters between objects, use a ruler to measure the segment between two points and multiply by the second indicator.
- The most detailed is the topographic plan of the area, its scale is 1:5,000 inclusive. It is not considered a map and is not as accurate, since it does not take into account the assumption that the earth is round. This somewhat distorts its information content, however, the plan is indispensable when depicting cultural, everyday and economic objects. In addition, the plan can also show micro-objects that are difficult to find on the map (for example, vegetation and soil, the contours of which are too small to be depicted in other materials).
- Topographic maps at scales of 1:10,000 and 1:25,000 are considered the most detailed among maps. They are used for household needs. They depict populated areas, industrial and agricultural facilities, roads, hydrographic networks, swamps, fences, boundaries, etc. Such maps are most often used to obtain information about objects in areas that do not have significant forest cover. They depict business objects most reliably.
- Maps with scales of 1:50,000 and 1:100,000 are less detailed. They schematically depict the contours of forests and other large objects, the image of which does not require much detail. Such maps are convenient to use for air navigation, drawing up road routes and so on.
- Less detailed maps are used for military purposes to carry out assigned tasks for planning various operations.
- Maps with a scale of up to 1:1,000,000 allow you to correctly assess the overall picture of the area.
Having decided on the task at hand, choosing a material seems absolutely not a difficult task. Depending on how detailed information about the area is needed, the required map scale is selected.
Working with a topographic map requires a clear knowledge of the schematic designation of the depicted objects.
Types of symbols:
- areal (scale) - for large objects (forest, meadow, lake), their sizes can be easily measured on a map, correlated with scale and obtained the necessary information about depth, length, area;
- linear - for extended geographical objects, the width of which cannot be indicated, they are drawn in the form of a line corresponding to the scale in order to correctly display the length of the object (road, power strip);
- off-scale - they are used to designate strategically important objects, without which the map will be incomplete, but in a rather conventional size (bridge, well, individual tree);
- explanatory - characterizing an object, for example, the depth of a river, the height of a slope, a tree that indicates the type of forest;
- depicting landscape components: relief, rocks and stones, hydrographic objects, vegetation, artificial structures;
- special - applied to maps for individual sectors of the economy (meteorological, military signs).
- the main information conveyed by the image of a populated area is the density of buildings and the location of the boundaries of the object; for this it is not necessary to mark every building, you can limit yourself to the main streets, intersections and important buildings;
- the symbols of a group of homogeneous objects allow the depiction of only the outermost of them;
- when drawing a line of roads, it is necessary to indicate their middle, which must correspond to the situation on the ground, and the width of the message object itself should not be displayed;
- strategically important objects such as factories and factories are designated at the site where the main building or factory chimney is located.
By correctly placing signs on the map, you can get a detailed idea of the relative position of objects on the ground, the distance between them, their heights, depths and other important information.
The map must be objective and this requirement includes the following provisions:
- correctly selected standard symbols; if this is a special map, then the symbols should also be generally known in a certain area;
- correct representation of line elements;
- one card must be drawn in one image style;
- micro-objects must also be marked exactly; if there is a certain number of such objects of the same size in the area, they must all be marked with the same sign on the map;
- the color indicators of the elements of the relief forms must be maintained correctly - heights and lowlands are often depicted with paints, next to the map there should be a scale that shows what height on the terrain a particular color corresponds to.
Symbols of topographic maps and plans are drawn in accordance with uniform rules.
So:- Object sizes are displayed in millimeters. These signatures are usually located to the left of the symbols. For one object, two numerical indicators are given, indicating height and width. If these parameters match, one signature is allowed. For round objects their diameter is indicated, for star-shaped signs - the diameter of the circumscribed circle. For an equilateral triangle, the parameter for its height is given.
- The thickness of the lines should correspond to the scale of the map. The main objects of plans and detailed maps (factories, mills, bridges, locks) are marked with lines of 0.2–0.25 mm, the same designations on small-scale maps from 1:50,000 - with lines of 0.2 mm. The lines indicating secondary characters have a thickness of 0.08–0.1 mm. On plans and large-scale maps, signs may be enlarged by one third.
- The symbols of topographic maps must be clear and readable, the spaces between inscriptions must be at least 0.2–0.3 mm. Strategically important objects can be slightly increased in size.
Separate requirements are put forward for the color scheme.
Thus, the background color should ensure good readability, and symbols are indicated by the following colors:
- green - designations of glaciers, eternal snow, swamps, salt marshes, intersections of coordinate lines and hydrography;
- brown – landforms;
- blue – water bodies;
- pink – highway interline clearances;
- red or brown - some signs of vegetation;
- black – shading and all signs.
- Objects indicated by off-scale symbols on topographic maps and plans must correspond to their location on the ground. To do this, they need to be placed according to certain rules.
- the center of the sign of objects of regular shape (round, square, triangular) on the plan;
- the middle of the base of the symbol - for perspective displays of objects (lighthouses, rocks);
- vertices of the designation angle - for icons with an element of right angles (tree, pillar);
- the middle of the bottom line of the sign is for designations in the form of a combination of figures (towers, chapels, towers).
Knowledge of the correct placement and application of signs will help you correctly draw up a topographic map or site plan, making it understandable to other users.
The designation of groups of objects by symbols must occur in accordance with the rules below.
- Geodetic points. These objects should be indicated in as much detail as possible. Marking the centers of points is applied exactly to the centimeter. If the point is located on an elevated area, it is necessary to note the height of the mound or mound. When drawing the boundaries of land surveys, which are marked on the ground with pillars and numbered, the numbering must also be displayed on the map.
- Buildings and their parts. The outlines of buildings must be mapped in accordance with the structure's layout and dimensions. Multi-storey and historically important buildings are depicted in most detail. The number of floors is indicated starting from two floors. If a building has an orientation tower, it must also be displayed on the map.
Small buildings, such as pavilions, cellars, building elements, are displayed at the request of the customer and only on detailed maps. The numbering of buildings is reproduced only on large maps. Additionally, letters can indicate the materials from which the building is constructed, its purpose, and fire resistance.
Conventional signs usually identify buildings under construction or dilapidated, cultural and religious buildings. Objects on the map must be placed exactly as in reality.
In general, the detail and detail of the description of the characteristics depends on the purpose of drawing up the map and is negotiated by the customer and the contractor.
- Industrial facilities. The number of floors in buildings does not matter. More important objects are administrative buildings and pipes. For pipes over 50 meters, it is necessary to indicate their actual height.
At enterprises that have mines and extract minerals, it is customary to designate objects located on the surface. Mapping of underground routes is carried out in agreement with the customer, indicating working and non-working branches. For quarries, a numerical designation of their depth is required.
- Railways are shown with their gauge. Inactive roads must also be marked on maps. For electrified roads and tram tracks, a power line must be displayed nearby.
The map shows the designation of road slopes, embankments and their heights, slopes, tunnels and their characteristics. Dead ends, turning circles and road ends must be marked.
Highways are marked with a certain sign, which depends on the surface. The roadway must be marked with a line.
- Hydrographic objects are usually divided into three groups:
- permanent;
- indefinite - existing all the time, but whose outlines often change;
- unstable - changing depending on the season, but with a pronounced source and direction of the channel.
Permanent bodies of water are depicted by solid lines, the rest - by dash-dotted lines.
- Relief. When depicting the terrain, horizontal lines or contour lines are used indicating the heights of individual ledges. Moreover, lowlands and elevations are depicted in a similar way, using strokes: if they go outward, then an elevation is depicted, if inward, it is a depression, beam or lowland. In addition, if the contour lines are close to each other, the slope is considered steep; if it is far away, it is gentle.
A good topographic map should be extremely accurate, objective, complete, reliable and clearly indicate the contours of objects. When drawing up a map, it is necessary to take into account the customer's requirements.
Depending on the purposes for which the topographic map is intended, some simplifications or minor distortions of minor objects are allowed, but the general requirements must be met.
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