The word "information" comes from Latin language. In translation, informatio means “message”.

Mass information- this is information for the masses, which can represent any large community of people. This could be the entire society as a whole, a people or nation, a class or stratum, as well as people living in the same region or belonging to a particular profession.

As you can see, the masses can be different. A feature of mass information is its focus on a specific vocabulary for the most successful and effective communication.

Media characteristics

Mass information has a number of characteristics:

• Lack of direct contact with the audience.
• Satisfying the masses' need for up-to-date information.
• Formation of a unified position of the masses in relation to various issues.
• Availability.
• Regularity.
• Return contact.

Each of the characteristics has its own development paths and is aimed at achieving universal human ideals.

Development of mass media

Since ancient times, various means of communication have developed. At first, the person himself appeared to them - the head of the clan or the elder, the leader. Knowledge was transmitted orally and in writing - using sheets of parchment or papyrus, clay tablets or inscriptions on stone. In a sense, these media can be called the first mass media.

In the first century, newspapers already had the appearance of modern bulletins. They were copied by hand for the purpose of distribution. Later, “flying sheets” became popular - news, first copied by hand, and then, after the invention of the printing press, distributed by postmen for a small fee.

With the advent of the era of printed thought, new genres emerged: chronicle, reportage, pamphlet. By the nineteenth century, the role of the media had increased significantly. Newspapers and magazines became an important part of public life: they learned about many events. Announcements of the arrival of ships, stock exchange news, transcripts of parliamentary debates, reviews of theatrical performances, sports news, rumors and sensations.

With the beginning of the use of newspapers in political struggle The media are divided into several categories: elite, mass, specialized (for example, religious or scientific) and the so-called yellow press.

The phenomenon of mass information was identified - this is the ability to influence the opinion of a wide audience. The media of the twenty-first century has abandoned coercive influence on the masses. Now they express the opinion of society and leave everyone the right to accept it or not.

What are the types of mass media?

On central square a herald comes out and announces a new royal decree. This was before the advent of the classical press. With her appearance, the city streets were filled with newsboys shouting the latest news from early morning. But this is also in the past. With the advent of radio on city streets, the latest news came from loudspeakers.

But the era of television came, and people glued themselves to the screens. The news program is published regularly at the most convenient time. And if the news is of a universal scale, transmissions are interrupted at any time for its sake.

And finally the Internet era is coming. Currently, more than half of people get their news from this source. Social media have become powerful media and continue to develop.

Media under the Tsar

Initially, the Russian press appeared at the behest of the Tsar. It was the newspaper "Chimes", or "Newsletters". The “Vedomosti” that followed it was the brainchild of Peter the Great and served the purpose of communicating reforms to the public masses, promoting and explaining their essence. Along with this, business correspondence was practiced, which was enough to notify the necessary sections of society.

The eighteenth century is called the era of Russian Enlightenment. At this time, the media are thick literary magazines, similar to almanacs. The first newspaper was published by the Academy of Sciences. This was in 1727. There are no political essays yet; many materials are reprinted from foreign sources. It was called “St. Petersburg Gazette” and existed until the 1917 revolution.

By the beginning of the twentieth century, there was still no freedom of speech in Russia. The existence of censorship made it impossible to publish liberal newspapers. The multi-party press appeared only in 1905. This was the time of satirical magazines. April 1917 brought the Press Law. The number of national, party, and youth newspapers has increased sharply. All layers of society had corresponding periodicals.

Media in the USSR

With the introduction of a one-party system in the country, tightening control over the press followed. The Press Decree introduced restrictions on opposition to existing ideology. The abolition occurred only in the nineties of the last century.

During the war, the Sovinformburo was created, which transmitted the latest news by radio. Post-war media until 1986 depicted the advantages of the socialist system and conveyed biased data about socialist construction. The developed radio network resisted the transmission of signals from abroad.

The current situation in Russia

Currently, the country's media, which have done a lot to promote democratic ideas, are faced with the impossibility of existing in market conditions. Dependence on advertisers, subscribers and the need to maintain a material base led to the fact that some ceased to exist, while others came under the control of political structures.

The Russian media, with few exceptions, do not have economic independence. In these conditions, the journalist himself becomes the guarantor of responsibility for collecting and transmitting reliable information. His degree of morality, political and social self-identification. The barrage of information that has hit the Russians requires the correct presentation of the facts.

Because mass information is a powerful weapon that can influence the adoption of personal opinions and, by and large, control the masses of people. After all, decisions that are made by a person on the basis of unreliable information cannot be correct. In this regard, the right to information arises.

Constitutional right to receive information

The UN has enshrined in the Declaration the right to receive reliable information. It is enshrined along with the rights to life, housing, and work. The Constitution of the Russian Federation confirmed the right to freely search, receive and disseminate information.

The laws of the Russian Federation regulate the exercise of this right. It may be refused if they are not complied with. For example, when violating the rights of others, in the interests of state security and other conditions. The Law on Mass Media is constantly updated with clarifications. For example, on January 1, 2018, additions and changes to the Law on Mass Information on media activities came into force.

Media Law

There are several media laws. All of them regulate the dissemination of information in various areas: the Internet, the media of foreign agents and others. The Basic Law on Mass Media, adopted in 1991, has been constantly updated since then. The main changes are worth considering in more detail.

• Media companies are not required to obtain prior approval before publishing information material.
• The distribution of media products cannot be prohibited.
• An interview with an official may be censored.
• Promotion of violence and pornography is prohibited.
• Dissemination of secrets protected by law through the media is prohibited.
• It is prohibited to highlight methods of producing substances harmful to health.
• It is prohibited to disclose data on the methods of carrying out anti-terrorist actions by the authorities.
• Registration of mass media is carried out through a special procedure through control bodies in the field of communications.

A federal information system has been created to control the media space (Article 15.8.2.1).

Media activities in emergency situations

There is a concept of “personal security culture”. This is a complex moral principles, social skills and special knowledge about behavioral stereotypes in dangerous situation. The role of the media is significant in the development of such a complex. By explaining to citizens their possible actions in a crisis situation, they form mass consciousness and increase the indicator of personal safety culture.

In the media always, and especially during the period natural disasters or other misfortunes, lies the responsibility of generating different flows of information for different groups of people. One and the same fact, presented in several different interpretations, will cause different responses. For people at the epicenter of an emergency, it is required psychological approach. The influence of frequently repeated descriptions of what is happening will cause them to become apathetic and depressed, so news in this zone is formed extremely carefully. For the territory of the country not affected by the emergency, the flow of information will be different, calling for humanity and compassion. And for external countries - third.

The activities of the media may not contain the work of journalists at all. This concerns live broadcast, government announcements or broadcasts from the scene without comment.

The rating of electronic versions of media is increasing

Russian media outlets that produce products in electronic and printed form tend to reduce the output of printed products. According to a statistical survey conducted in October 2017, it turned out that almost half of readers (47%) prefer electronic information.

The volume of production of paper periodicals has decreased significantly, although about 80% of respondents have not yet given up on it.

Compared to 2015, when 77% of respondents read printed versions, in 2017 only 55% remained. Moreover, a third of those surveyed said they were ready to completely switch to online content.

Media and youth

Mass information is a credible message on the basis of which people will accept personal decisions. The success of their actions and consequences depend on how reliable the news people heard or read was.

Social networks have literally become addictive to the younger generation. Communication is replaced by messages, and a lot of time is spent on viewing events. Qualitative information is negligible. The generation of children born into the digital age often has little understanding of real world, replacing it with a virtual one.

It has been noticed that crime has increased sharply in those countries where television is developing. Viewing scenes of cruelty and violence has a long-term effect, destructs the personality, dulls empathy and is addictive.

Along with the negative influences of the media, there are also positive ones. These are children's programs, competitions, educational shows. The need to carve out media space to create a positive impact stream in the twenty-first century has become clear.

The influence of the media on society

It is not for nothing that the modern model of society is called informational, since never before has information occupied such a large place in its life. The ability of the media to convey information to people at high speed imposes a certain responsibility on the formation of mass consciousness.

The media play a significant role in society, forming a common opinion, a stereotype of behavior in various situations, and an attitude towards the phenomena of the surrounding world. Only analytical information can expand horizons and provide a choice of action, instill independence in thinking. But increasingly, educational programs include advertising or ready-made recipes for behavior.

There is a standardization of opinions and massification of personality. Mass information is a tool that can benefit society if guided by the moral hand of an incorruptible journalist. Otherwise, it turns into a dangerous weapon. It is always directed against the public mass - you and me. Therefore, in information society Professional journalists in the highest sense of the word are valued more than ever before.

Man is a unique creature living on Earth. He has great abilities in thinking, memory, imagination, and speech. There are only unconfirmed assumptions in various versions about its appearance on our planet. Its capabilities have not been fully determined. Let us turn to various statements about human development.

Anthropologists claim that several hundred thousand years ago the evolution of homo sapiens as a biological species ceased. But...Cro-Magnons and modern man- practically the same look. Since the Neolithic era, any noticeable differences disappear completely. Then the reason for what happened remains unclear. From various sources we learn that such a living fossil as a shark has remained almost unchanged throughout the history of development. Most likely, the almost unchanged living conditions in the water space have an effect. Man is a creature endowed with a flexible mind and a tireless desire to learn. the world around us, mastered new pieces of knowledge, used them in various life situations, acquiring, consolidating and developing more and more new skills and abilities. His brain could not limit itself to a certain standard of knowledge. The gradual development of new territories, a changing climate and adaptation to new conditions - all this changed the habitat, posed new tasks for man to survive, that is, contributed to the search for new means of coexistence in the community and the environment. This was a condition for the development of thought, and therefore thinking and, naturally, the human mind. We have the right to assume that the development of the human mind has nevertheless progressed, but outwardly imperceptibly. Adapting to new living conditions, people changed the environment, which led to changes in human essence and condition.

On the way to progress

Adapting to conditions environment, man constantly searched, found and improved ways to help him thoroughly establish himself in existing conditions. The desire to survive has become the main driving force of human progress. A revolution in human life was the wire telegraph, which made it possible to exchange information in real time, without delays or delays. Newspapers began to be published more often. Over the years, the press has played a leading role in the exchange and supply of information. The advent of radio speeded up the delivery of information several times. People in a short period of time received information about the facts of events from different parts of the country and the globe.

Radio broadcasting has become a strong competitor to newspaper and magazine publishing houses, which have always been considered the property of the elite. It wasn't cheap. The need for daily information could not satisfy people's needs due to lack of funds. In addition, many people were illiterate and could not independently obtain information from the press. Radio was more accessible to the people, since loudspeakers were hung in publicly accessible places - in squares and crowded places. But radio broadcasting immediately became the main means of influencing the masses in the right direction to influence the masses. The “carrot and stick” policy has become less intense and more subtle.

Once Diderot, one of the prominent figures of the French Enlightenment, gallantly remarked to the Russian Empress, Catherine II, that she ruled her people with such great art that all her commands were carried out unquestioningly. The Empress replied: “If only you knew how difficult it is: to give exactly those orders that will certainly be carried out...” The art of a ruler lay in the ability to make a behavioral forecast on the reaction of the mass of people and subordinate their actions to his plans. This game of politicians was played constantly and in the difficult conditions of information hunger of those times.

With the invention of radio, people became more aware, but immediately became the “bait” of the ruling circles, who received reliable access to vary the facts and present information to their own advantage. Manufacturers of radios and information did not even imagine the breadth of distribution of what they wanted. For the first time, the question seriously arose about the possibilities not only of influencing public opinion, but also of shaping it in the right direction. Enthusiastic agitators were replaced by radio technology, which provided interested parties with the opportunity to replicate, or advertise, literally everything: tastes, fashion, political views, way of thinking.

The newborn media became an ideological platform for the powerful classes, certain groups of people united by common interests and individuals, owners of sufficient funds and entrepreneurs.

The growth of technological progress involuntarily subjugated a person, attracted by the availability of radio information, which does not require additional costs and special efforts to receive and assimilate what he heard. People have become hostages of information progress.

Time has determined a situation where humanity has come close to what we observe in the modern life of human society - a direct confrontation between the individual and information technology. The time has come when people can no longer imagine life without information systems alerts and are under pressure from huge flows of unnecessary information arriving regardless of their requests.

The mechanism of influence of information on the human psyche.

The peculiarities of human perception are such that, when dealing with redundant information, the brain is aimed at processing data coming from various sources of information about the world around us, highlighting the most important and significant of what is received. This ability has been developed evolutionarily. For the survival of any biological species, a timely and correct reaction to the situation in the diversity of the external world is necessary. To survive on earth, a species must not only survive, but also leave behind offspring. Let us investigate the following property. Many species have peripheral vision. If we are unable to determine the color or shape in this case, we are at least able to notice a moving car, which will be a warning of danger. Nature initially laid down ways to preserve living beings. The reaction to this action is expected to be ambiguous. But with more developed vigilance, a biological individual can avoid death. But that's another question. What does all this physiology have to do with the impact of information technology on the human psyche? It turns out it's direct.

The influence of the external world perceived by the brain is not always reflected as intended by the manufacturer. Each person perceives the world around him in his own way. Let us consider the information entering the brain as a sequence of certain messages from the outside. The science of semiotics studies such questions and directs us in the appropriate direction of reasoning. Any message is formed by signs that carry a certain meaning - explicit and implied.

With messages coming from the surrounding, natural, inanimate nature, special signals enter the human brain as special impulses. For example, you enter a forest, see a windbreak or a swamp - nature has warned you about a danger that you know about from the experience of entire generations and it is up to you to decide what to do. We seem to be faced with an implication of danger. Dense forest. Dangerous! There may be wild animals and unforeseen situations. By entering it, you take a risk. You need to have a lot of knowledge, the ability to navigate in the forest, have endurance, will, and certain skills. Currently, you should stock up on a compass, a cell phone, special insect repellent creams, rubber boots in spring, summer and autumn, a map of the area, and in winter - warm clothes, means of protection against attacks by wild animals and food. The situation is the same in any other unfamiliar area - in the mountains, on rivers, in the desert, in the steppe. Nature will always help you find a clue and guide you to a way out of the current situation. You need to be observant, attentive and careful in choosing your action.

Let us turn to another case, when a message has an author who sends a message with a clearly defined purpose, with a code of meaning. The process of perception becomes more complicated. The meaning of each specific word is determined by the essence of adjacent words. The statement is perceived as a whole, as a single information package. The importance of a statement may be equally valuable for the transmitter and the recipient, or a certain reaction on the part of the recipient of this statement is expected. Moreover, indicators of the meaning contained in a phrase or statement can be intonation, facial expressions, gestures, behavioral reactions and other signs that help a person identify the exact meaning of what was said. The person to whom the message is sent recognizes the essence of the statement and its significance. Sometimes there is some failure in a situation where the goal is not achieved as a result of the transmission of the statement. This happens for a number of reasons. The person receiving the statement is a representative of a different culture, field of activity, level of education, etc. As a result, some of the meanings embedded in the message are dissipated due to misunderstanding or deliberately ignored by the recipient. In addition, there is a danger of the message becoming “noisy” when the recipient tries to read it deeper than the author himself encoded.

Let's return to a thoughtful and planned information message, which is specifically sent to a wide circle of the population, to the masses. If we analyze the impact of information on people, we can note different reactions to what they hear. Information can be one-time and systematic, formal or factual, complete, bright and effective, or meager and superficial. If we talk about the impact of broadcast messages (propaganda, advertising, media campaigns) on the psyche of the audience, then the situation becomes more complicated. The authors purposefully introduce a “preferred” meaning into their messages with a programmed response from the entire mass of recipients. Encoding of the preferred meaning can also be carried out at the level of direct influence on the subconscious. In turn, the audience (ideally) is not a mindless absorber of any information that they are trying to impose on them. Everyone allocates for themselves only part of the required information for certain reasons. Other information may be discarded due to lack of interest. We live in the information age. Day after day, a person accumulates experience in standard time conditions. Understanding the situation leads to thinking about what you heard and saw. The proposed information is sorted. Gradually, a person develops the skill of selecting information on the subconscious, bringing actions to automaticity. It is impossible to process the entire stream of information flows released to the masses. A person masters a new temporary space.

A person of the 21st century cannot complain about a lack of information.

Moreover, its excess sometimes overloads the brain quite heavily.

• What should people do who, having heard or seen something traumatic, may be in a depressed and anxious state for a long time?
• How to learn to restore yourself after a stressful situation?
• How to deal with people who are overly impressionable?
• Superstition as an additional source of negative information.

These are the main issues that will be discussed in this material.

Most people can remember an example from their lives when, having learned something unpleasant, they felt like “the ground was disappearing from under their feet”... This state of stress and the physical sensations associated with it are quite understandable. But some people manage to quickly return to a state of normalcy, while others cannot “part with” the negative information received for hours (days, weeks). Of course, it all depends on the features nervous system person.

In times of stress, you can hardly remember advice and recommendations. But they can come in handy at a time when the memory of an unpleasant event begins to re-ignite anxiety.

How can you help yourself in such situations?

Understand yourself

Usually, when a person begins to remember something negative, he either scolds himself for it or is afraid of his own thoughts. Both of these further increase internal tension. In this regard, you should explain to yourself:

• "I can think about it"
• "I have the right to remember"
• “Every person tends to remember both good and bad.”

At this time, internal support is felt.

Figure out what's going on

“Can I at this time influence the course of events that happened in the past?”
Most likely the answer will be: “No!”

Accordingly, ask the following question: “Am I now worried that a tragedy has happened to someone - or am I afraid that something similar will happen to me?”

Help yourself

When thoughts about sympathy for other people come, it is worth explaining to yourself that the tendency to empathy is your strong trait, and if through it you can help someone, then great. Is there no way to change anything? Thank yourself for the fact that you are naturally given to be a sincere person. But this should not harm your own health in any way.

In cases where fear for oneself turns on, explain that this is how the instinct of self-preservation expresses itself. The scary pictures that appear in your head are just the work of the imagination turned on against the backdrop of negative emotions.

You can become a victim both from information that concerns you personally, and from information that has absolutely nothing to do with the person.

As you know, there is no way to insure yourself against stress and negativity. But it is still possible to reduce the risk of exposure to destructive information. People whose impressionability is pronounced need to adhere to some rules:

• Avoid watching violent videos and videos that depict various types of disasters. Read the titles before opening them. If curiosity and the desire to be aware of any event manifest themselves, then it would be safer to limit yourself to reading without viewing photos and videos.
• Forget about the “Google symptoms” method of diagnosing your own health. Thousands of people traumatize themselves with information by independently diagnosing themselves through Internet resources. It’s not for nothing that medicine takes many years to study. Only professional knowledge and a properly structured examination can provide an understanding of a person’s health status.
• Don't forget that everyone can make mistakes. Any information, if it is important, needs to be double-checked.

People prone to anxiety, worry and hypochondria can rarely be understood by those close to them. As a result, their anxiety becomes even worse.

In this regard, some wishes for those who are nearby:

1. Try to be understanding about the condition of your loved ones: “I understand you. You are an impressionable person. Let’s look for ways together to make it easier for you!”
2. Eliminate ridicule and comments such as: “Why are you stressing yourself out like that!”, “You have nothing to do!”, “I would like your problems!”
3. Suggest specific actions. Worried about your health? Offer to get tested. Overloaded with negative information? Invite to some place where you can switch to positive emotions.

Since childhood, people fill themselves with dozens of superstitions, which can also lead to negative thoughts and internal imbalance.

An example from life.
The person has an interview scheduled for Monday. But since childhood, his grandmother told him that things might not go very well on Mondays. What does a suspicious person do? He begins to worry about how successful this important event will be. Although in fact you need to explain to yourself that this is just a stereotype once invented by someone and there is no evidence of its effectiveness.

If a black cat crosses your path, then she has business on the next street!

(PN )n – estimated additional profit from expanding the scale of activity;

(RA)n – estimated additional profit from risk reduction due to diversification of the holding’s activities;

(EE )n – savings in current production costs; I n – increase (savings) of tax payments;

I n – investments at the initial moment of absorption.

2. Less accurate is the estimate based on net asset value, which is defined as the difference between the total value of the assets of the acquired company and the amount of its settlement and payment obligations:

S = A – K, (22)

where S is the net asset value of the acquired company; A is the book value of the assets of the acquired company;

K – the amount of settlement and payment obligations of the acquired company.

3. A fairly reliable way to evaluate assets is the market value of the acquired company (whose shares are freely traded on the stock market), which is determined by the formula:

S = (P /E )*Q , (23)

where S is the market value of the company’s assets; P – market price of the company’s shares; E – profit per one share of the company;

Q is the number of company shares traded on the market.

Topic 10. Information asymmetry and its impact on markets

1. Market imperfections. Information asymmetry.

2. Problems of the existence of markets in conditions of information asymmetry.

3. Risk of irresponsibility.

4. Negative selection.

5. The principal-agent problem.

1. The significance of information for decision making does not require any special justification. Sufficient evidence is that the assumption of completeness of information was accepted as mandatory in the analysis of all major microeconomic market models.

Incomplete information is one of the immediate causes of market uncertainty.

Market uncertainty is a condition for making economic decisions. The substantive side of market uncertainty is that economic entities forced to make decisions

conditions, the change of which is difficult to predict, and the probability cannot be assessed. Since incomplete information always exists, market uncertainty is, in principle, irremovable. It can be reduced, but by no means eliminated.

The presence of market uncertainty has several consequences. First, it prevents optimal decision making. Secondly, it generates additional transaction costs. Thirdly, due to market uncertainty, economic actors find themselves in unequal conditions when making decisions. Fourthly, it influences the behavior of firms: the higher the market uncertainty, the greater the tendency of firms to adopt cooperative behavioral strategies.

Incomplete information, which creates market uncertainty, is only part of the problem that market participants face. Another part of this problem is that the available information is unevenly distributed among participants in a market transaction. The seller is more knowledgeable about the product than the buyer. But the buyer knows what the maximum price he is willing to pay for the good, but the seller does not know this. The seller knows at what minimum price he is willing to sell the product, but this is unknown to the buyer. Different degrees of awareness of market agents are called information asymmetry.

Thus, information asymmetry there is an uneven distribution between market participants of information about the conditions for carrying out a market transaction and each other’s intentions.

There are two types of information asymmetry:

- hidden characteristics (one of the parties to a market transaction has more complete information than the other);

- hidden actions (a participant in a market transaction with more complete information can take actions that are not observed by a less informed participant).

The forms of manifestation of the influence of information asymmetry on the market are diverse. In some cases, information asymmetry can cause the market power of sellers to develop. Since obtaining information involves additional costs for the buyer, it makes sense for him only if the expected benefits exceed the costs of searching for information. When buyers are unaware of the costs associated with searching for information and the benefits of obtaining it, the seller can take advantage of this by setting the price of the product above the equilibrium price. In other words, even in a perfectly competitive market, situations arise when the seller can sell goods at prices that exceed the marginal cost of production.

Information asymmetry is also a source of price discrimination. Often the buyer is not able to determine the quality characteristics of the good. This allows the seller to differentiate the product not based on a real change in its parameters, but through their imitation, which is called phantom differentiation. One and the same

cognac can be sold in different bottles at different prices under the names “Southern” and “Royal”. This is a typical example of price discrimination based on information asymmetry.

It is not only the consumer who suffers from information asymmetry. Hidden characteristics of buyers often cause loss of profits even for firms with significant market power.

Hidden characteristics pose a major challenge to employers when recruiting labor. If the employer is unable to determine professional qualities workers, this may cause not only a reduction in its profits, but also a decrease in the efficiency of the labor market.

So, information asymmetry has a significant impact on both the behavior of market participants and the mechanism of its functioning. Depending on the degree of information asymmetry, the negative consequences caused by it can manifest themselves both in the suboptimal distribution of resources and in the impossibility of establishing market equilibrium.

2. In some cases, information asymmetry can have such a strong impact on the functioning of the market that the market acquires the specific characteristics of a “market of lemons.”

This definition was introduced into scientific circulation by the American economist J. Akerlof, who was the first to describe the impact of information asymmetry on the market, and stems from the definition of a product with hidden defects as a “lemon” adopted in North America. In general, the “market for lemons” can be characterized as a market with a high degree of information asymmetry. The essence of the problems of the “lemons market” comes down to

to the fact that, firstly, the presence of hidden characteristics creates incentives for dishonest behavior (risk of irresponsibility) and, secondly, hidden actions trigger a mechanism of market destruction (negative selection).

3. The risk of irresponsibility is dishonest behavior that consists of distorting information and is characterized by the desire to extract additional benefits due to the presence of information asymmetry.

The essence of the problem of irresponsibility risk is that a market with asymmetric information provides an opportunity for one of the participants in a market transaction to abuse the expectations of another participant who has less complete information. Let us illustrate this using the example of a market transaction with a benefit (Fig. 7).

Rice. 7. Consequences of the risk of irresponsibility in a one-time transaction

The consequences of the risk of irresponsibility are not clear-cut. If the buyer is not able to identify the actual quality of the product when purchasing, then he can do this in the process of consuming it. If the quality of a product is determined during its consumption, then this allows the buyer to identify sellers, and the more clearly the greater the repeatability of purchases. With repeated interactions between the seller and the buyer, the degree of information asymmetry for the buyer will decrease and he will be able to differentiate between sellers' products. This, of course, does not mean that consumers will refuse low-quality goods, but only says that the demand for a high-quality product (Dк) will separate from the demand for a low-quality product (Dн) (Fig. 8).

At the same time, the market situation is changing dramatically. In effect, we end up with a market of monopolistic competition, where sellers of a differentiated product compete for sales volume. Accordingly, the distribution of market shares of sellers and their profits will depend on the characteristics of demand for each product and the level of production costs. In our case, the seller of a high-quality product sells it at a price Pk in the volume Qk, and the seller of a low-quality product

– at price Рн in volume Qн.

Rice. 8. Elimination of information asymmetry in repeated interactions between seller and buyer

The general conclusion that the analysis allows us to make is that the degree of manifestation of the risk of irresponsibility depends on two factors:

– buyer awareness;

– repeatability of interaction between seller and buyer. It is quite obvious that the level of consumer awareness

directly depends on the repetition of their interaction with sellers, which contributes to an increase in the awareness of buyers, and therefore a decrease in the degree of information asymmetry. It is no coincidence that low-quality goods are most often sold through street vendors or in the form of so-called promotions, when repeat purchases are virtually eliminated. At the same time, the degree to which the risk of irresponsibility manifests itself in the market depends on the share of informed buyers. In this regard, several patterns can be formulated.

4. The most glaring example of inefficiency market mechanism in conditions of information asymmetry – negative selection. The problem of negative selection is closely related to the risk of irresponsibility and, in fact, is a special case of it. The specificity here is that in the case of negative selection, the buyer’s expectations are strictly defined, in other words, set: based on the high probability of the presence of a low-quality good on the market, he is willing to pay only a low price. Therefore, the supply of low-quality goods will expand, and the supply of high-quality goods will decrease. As a result, the market will be filled with only low-quality goods. This, in fact, constitutes the substantive side of negative selection as an economic phenomenon.

Negative selection is a way of functioning of the market, which is characterized by the process of replacing high-quality goods with low-quality ones, generated by the presence of information asymmetry.

Let us illustrate this with a classic example of the used car market, borrowed from J. Akerlof. But first, let's consider a situation where there is no information asymmetry.

An example of such a situation is the separate functioning of the markets for new, that is, not used, and used cars.

Rice. 9. Market equilibrium in the absence of information asymmetry

As can be seen from Fig. 9, in each of the markets its own special equilibrium is formed (point A for the new car market and point B for the used car market) depending on the characteristic features of market demand and supply.

Now consider the situation that arises in the used car market, where the degree of information asymmetry is especially high. The specificity of this market is that the buyer can evaluate external condition car, but not hidden defects. Based on the belief that good things don't sell in this market, the buyer will view any used (even almost new) car as a low-quality good. On this basis, dissonance arises between the seller's price and the buyer's price. Sellers know the quality of the cars they sell. The seller of a high-quality car will demand a high price for it, and the seller of a low-quality car is ready to sell the car at a low price. If we assume that the buyer assumes an equal probability of buying a high-quality and low-quality car, then he will agree to an average price - lower than the price of high-quality cars and higher than the price of low-quality ones.

In such a situation, sellers of quality cars will refrain from selling. Sellers of low-quality cars, on the other hand, will receive a higher-than-expected price, which encourages an expansion of the supply of low-quality cars. At the same time, the process of replacing high-quality goods with low-quality ones will progress. Increasingly convinced of the low quality of cars, buyers will begin to reduce the price, and sellers

– offer increasingly lower-quality cars. As a result, the market may find itself in a position where buyer and seller prices are incomparable and market transactions will be impossible, that is, the market will collapse. This is a verbal model of the mechanism of negative selection under conditions of information asymmetry.

A graphical model of the negative selection mechanism allows us to penetrate deeper into the content of what is happening.

Rice. 10. The mechanism of action of negative selection and its consequences

5. A special area of ​​manifestations of the risk of irresponsibility consists of contractual relations between parties, one of which instructs the other to perform certain actions for a fee. In economics, the party giving the order is called the principal (customer), and the party executing the order is called the agent (performer). Both the principal and the agent can be an individual, a company, an organization, or a government agency.

The characteristic features of the relationship between principal and agent can be illustrated simple example. Let's say a citizen decides to buy an apartment. Poorly oriented in the housing market, unable to devote much time to searching, very superficial knowledge of the legal norms in this area, etc., he decides to turn to the services of a real estate agent (a real estate agency company can act as an agent) . The agent has the necessary professional knowledge, understands the housing market conditions, has specific information about the apartments on offer, in short, there is reason to believe that he will cope with the task better.

The citizen is interested in purchasing a fairly spacious and comfortable apartment and, if possible, as cheaply as possible. If he independently compared various purchasing options, he would balance the usefulness of the apartment with its price.

According to the meaning of the contract, the agent must act in the interests of the customer. But in reality his interests lie on a different plane.

We will assume that the agent will receive a reward only if the transaction takes place, and in an amount depending on the transaction amount (for example, in the form of a fixed percentage). He is not interested in the usefulness of the apartment for the principal. He is interested in the apartment being purchased at a higher price. In addition, he does not want to spend extra effort on searching. Since the principal does not have the same information as the agent and cannot control the quality of his choice, then, most likely, the proposed apartment will be acceptable for the principal, but not necessarily the best.

Of course, if there is competition in the agency services market, a citizen can turn to another agent and compare the quality of services. If this market were perfect, then agents would be interested in making the best choice for their clients (principals). However, significant transaction costs and other imperfections in the agency services market cause more or less significant losses for clients.

This simple example shows the conditions for the risk of irresponsibility associated with the principal-agent problem:

– discrepancy between the interests of the principal and the agent;

– information asymmetry (in favor of the agent) regarding the quality of fulfillment of the terms of the contract;

– imperfection of the agency services market.

Whatever the forms in which the consequences of information asymmetry appear, they all indicate that information asymmetry has a serious negative impact, expressed in a decrease in the efficiency of decisions made by market participants, the functioning of the market itself and the economy as a whole.

The problem of information asymmetry can be regulated at the level of optimization of the economic system as a whole. In this case, market information plays a role public good, and its dissemination is one of the most important functions of society. Therefore, the defining ways to reduce information asymmetry are legislative regulation of economic activity, development and state support of activities public organizations– unions (associations) of consumers and producers, social insurance, organization of information intermediation institutions – credit bureaus that accumulate retrospective information of an institutional nature.