How the state borders of Ukraine were formed. Blog about sharpening Map of the Ukrainian SSR 1941
4... a) Fedorovsky, Nikolaevsky (with the city of Taganrog), Matveevo-Kurgansky, Sovetinsky, Golodayevsky districts and the eastern part of the Ekaterinovsky district of the Taganrog district;
b) Glubokinsky, Leninsky, Kamensky, Ust-Belokalitvensky, Vladimirsky, Sulinsky, Shakhtinsky (from the city of Shakhty) districts and parts of the territory of the Sorokinsky and Alekseevsky districts of the Shakhtinsky district.
5. In connection with the transition specified in Art. 4 of this Resolution of the Shakhty and Taganrog districts of the Ukrainian Socialist Soviet Republic to the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic, the borders between the Ukrainian Socialist Soviet Republic and the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic, by virtue of this Resolution, are considered along the following line:
The Sorokinsky district is divided by the Seversky Donets River into two parts, of which the northern one goes to the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic, and the southern one remains within the Ukrainian Socialist Soviet Republic; further the border follows the Seversky Donets River until the river flows into it. B. Kamenki. The village of Gundorovskaya, within the established boundaries of land use, belongs to the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic, and when established external borders land use art. The Gundorovskaya mines are not included in the internal borders and remain with the Ukrainian Socialist Soviet Republic. Further the border goes along the river. B. Kamenka, and the farms of N. Shevyrev and Pleshakov go to the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic, and the farms of Vlasov and Korolev remain with the Ukrainian Socialist Soviet Republic with the fact that the land use of all these farms remains unchanged until land management work is carried out. Further, the border goes between the land uses of the Krasnaya Mogila state farm (formerly Provalye) and the villages of Kovalevo, Platovo and Gukovo, from here the border runs along the boundary of the village. Krinichnaya (formerly Biryukovo), capturing the Dobrydnev farmstead, i.e. along the border of the Sharapovsky district. Further, passing through the territory of the Alekseevsky district and leaving the land use of Art. within the Ukrainian Socialist Soviet Republic. Ostakhova and the farms of N. Efremovsky, N. Aleksandrovsky and V. Tuzlovsky, the border reaches the Taganrog district and, passing along the old district border of the Shakhtinsky and Taganrog districts for 5 versts, goes in the direction of the river. Tuzlovo along the regional border between Golodayevsky and Dmitrievsky districts to the river. Mius. Further, the border follows the river. Mius along the land use boundaries between the villages of Marinovka, Grigoryevka and Golodayevka so that the village. With. Marinovka and Grigorievka remain within the Ukrainian Socialist Soviet Republic, and the village. Golodayevka goes to the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic.
Passing further along the border of land use of the German colonies of Vischlerovka, Marienheim and Gustav Feld, and these colonies go to the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic, the border runs along the Amvrosiysk regional border to the Sredny Elanchik river. Further, the border is established along the land use of the village of Pokrovo-Kireevka, the villages of Ekaterinoslavsky, Slyusarevo to the Gruzsky Elanchik gully, leaving the northwestern part of the Ekaterinovo district within the Ukrainian Socialist Soviet Republic. Further, the border goes along the Gruzsky Elanchik gully up to the border of the Mariupol district.
It is most appropriate to begin the history of administrative division from the time of the Hetmanate. It was formed during the uprising of B. Khmelnytsky in 1648 and acquired a unique administrative-territorial structure, which was formed on the basis of the traditions of Cossack self-government. It was divided into shelves and hundreds. On the Right Bank, the regimental-hundred system existed until 1714; on the Left Bank it survived until 1782. The highest military, administrative and judicial authority on the territory of the regiment was exercised by the colonel. The main executive body was the regimental chancellery. Colonels were appointed by the hetman. An important role was played by the regimental foremen: a baggage officer, two captains, a judge, and a clerk. The regimental council of Cossacks and foremen served as an auxiliary body. In the territory of hundreds, power belonged to the centurion, who was either elected by the Cossacks or appointed colonel. The clerk, esaul and ataman belonged to the hundred administration; there was also a hundred council. In towns and villages, the Cossacks entered the kuren, which elected the ataman, and the villagers and townspeople elected the voight. Atamans and voits constituted the lowest level of the administration. Cities with Magdeburg law retained their rights and were headed by voits. The city administration included mayors, raits and lavniki. Other cities and towns that had self-government were called town halls; at the same time, Cossack elders had power in them, to whom the Cossacks were subordinate. On the Left Bank, instead of the town, zemstvo, podkomorny and dominant (lord) courts that existed under the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, regimental and hundred courts operated. Not only Cossacks, but also burghers and villagers were subject to the jurisdiction of Cossack courts, especially in matters of robbery and murder. In cities and towns, the court was administered by collegiums of lords and town halls, in villages - by voits and atamans. In the northern regions of the Left Bank there were cop courts - rural community courts.
In April 1775, Catherine ordered the liquidation of the Sich. In 1781, the military Administrative division into Cossack regiments, and Left Bank Ukraine was divided into three governorships. In 1763, P. A. Rumyantsev liquidated the Cossack regiments as military formations, merging them with the cavalry regiments of the Russian army. In 1780, on the territory of five regiments of Sloboda Ukraine, liquidated back in 1765, the Kharkov governorship was created. Finally, on December 12, 1796, Paul I abolished the governorship and approved the formation of the Little Russian province.
“Little Russian province - formed from three governorships into which Little Russia was then divided, and the former Poltava regiment and the city of Kremenchug were annexed to it, with the towns and villages of the former Mirgorod regiment, which were part of the Ekaterinoslav province, but the city of Kiev was separated , "with a circle, according to its position beyond the river. Dnieper". The provincial city was Chernigov. The formation of M. provinces was in connection with the restoration under Paul I in Little Russia of the general, zemstvo and sub-comorian courts. In 1802, two were formed from M. provinces - Chernigov and Poltava...
The first experience of dividing Russia (which included the current territory of Ukraine - ed.) into certain administrative units was carried out by Peter the Great. In 1708, 8 provinces were established, including Kiev , which included current lips Chernigovskaya, Poltavaskaya, almost all of Kurskskaya, zap. parts of Kharkov and Oryol, southwest. - Tula and St. - Ekaterinoslavskaya. The Dnieper served as a reserve. border of this province; beyond the Dnieper, only the city of Kyiv and its surroundings belonged to it.
In 1719, instead of 8, 11 provinces were established, and 9 of them were in turn divided into 42 provinces. Over the next 30 years, the composition of the provinces changed more than once, partly as a result of the annexation of new possessions to the empire, partly for administrative reasons. In 1745 Imp. Academy of Sciences published the first complete geographical atlas R.; it details the distribution of the country into 16 provinces, subdivided into 69 provinces, the lands of the Don Cossacks, the Ukrainian line, the cities of the Sloboda regiments (b O most of the present Kharkov and southwestern part of the Voronezh province), Zaporozhye Sich and New Serbia (current Alexandria district of the Kherson province and Verkhnedneprovsky Yekaterinoslav). By a personal decree on June 13, 1781, the “All-Russian Empire” was divided into 40 provinces...At that time the provinces began to be called governorships; this name was destroyed during the imp. Paul I ...According to the peace concluded in 1810 in Lemberg with Austria, part of Galicia went to Russia, and from it the Tarnopol region was established, again ceded to Austria in 1815. Formed in 1824, Sloboda-Ukrainian province. in 1835 it was renamed Kharkov... The cities of Kronstadt and Nikolaev were separated from the jurisdiction of the provinces, headed by military governors, St. Petersburg, Odessa, Sevastopol and Kerch-Yenikale - forming separate city administrations.
Provinces and regions are divided into counties and districts... All counties, districts, etc. in R. there are 815. Further divisions are volosts, communes (in the provinces of the Kingdom of Poland), villages (in areas inhabited by Cossacks), uluses (among the foreign population), etc. All these smaller administrative units in R. 18012. Small administrative units are grouped into camps, districts, etc., which number until 2040. Many cities are excluded from counties and districts and are governed as independent administrative units. "
Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Efron.
By the middle of the 19th century. out of 10 governor generals of the entire Russian Empire, 3 were in Ukraine. Consequently, all 9 provinces, namely:
Kharkov, Chernigov and Poltava; Kyiv, Podolsk and Volyn; Ekaterinoslav, Kherson and Tauride - were part of the Little Russian, Kiev and Novorossiysk-Bessarabian general governorates. In the Russian laws in force at that time, the governor general was the name of the official who was entrusted with the main management of one or more provinces.
Partitions of Poland carried out in the 70-90s. 18th century three monarchies - Russian, Austrian and Prussian, made significant changes in the life of Eastern Galicia, Northern Bukovina and Transcarpathia. The new Austrian authorities, just like the old ones - the Polish ones, when they carried out administrative-territorial delimitation, did not pay attention to ethnic composition population. As a result of this, both the eastern Galician lands (where the majority were Ukrainians) and the western Galician lands (where the majority were Poles) fell into one administrative-territorial structure, called the “crown region”, or the “kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria”.
The “Kingdom” was divided into 12 districts. Until 1861, this “kingdom” included Bukovina as a separate district (also without ethnic division, although even then Northern Bukovina had a superior Ukrainian population, and in Southern Bukovina the majority of the population were Romanians). The city of Chernivtsi was designated as its administrative and political center. Transcarpathian Ukraine was subordinate to the Pozsona (Bratislava) viceroyal administration of the Kingdom of Hungary. It was divided into four administrative and political regions (zhupa).
The Ukrainian SSR was formed on December 25, 1917 and received the division of the territory into provinces and districts inherited from the Russian Empire.
From January 1918 to April 1919, Kyiv was the capital of independent Ukraine (Central Rada, Skoropadsky Hetmanate, Petliura Directory). At the same time, since 1918, the capital of the Bolshevik Ukrainian SSR was Kharkov. On December 18, 1919, Kharkov was declared the official capital.
The territory of the Ukrainian SSR was made up of the former provinces of the Russian Empire: Kharkov, Poltava, Kiev, Podolsk, Kherson and Ekaterinoslav (included in full) as well as Volyn, Chernigov and Tauride partially included (Vladimir-Volynsky, Dubensky, Kremenets, Kovel, Lutsk districts and 3/7 Ostrogozhsky of the former Volyn Province went to Poland; the counties of Surazhsky, Mglinsky, Novozybkovsky and Starodubsky of the former Chernigov province became part of the Gomel Province of the R.S.F. S.R and part of the former Tauride province, which occupied the area of the Crimean Peninsula, formed the Crimean Autonomous Republic).
As part of the Ukrainian SSR, the old provinces underwent significant redistribution and 1922 were divided into 12 provinces with a total area of 408,052 square miles:
Volyn province (30,282 sq. versts)
Donetsk province (54,259 sq.m.)
Ekaterinoslav province (32267 sq.v.)
Kyiv province (42048 sq.v.)
Kremenchug province (24757 sq.v.)
Nikolaev province (32983 sq.v.)
Odessa province (32898 sq.v.)
Podolsk province (30097 sq.v.)
Poltava province (30438 sq.v.)
Kharkov province (37039 sq.v.)
Chernigov province (32841 sq.v.)
In addition to the redistribution of provincial territories, changes also occurred at the county level - the number of counties was 101.
By 1923, the number of provinces was reduced to 9 (Kremenchug, Nikolaev and Zaporozhye were liquidated) and instead of counties, 53 districts were created.
At the end of 1924, the Autonomous Moldavian SSR (AM SSR) was created on the territory of the Podolsk and Odessa provinces.
By the spring of 1925, the provinces were liquidated, and the districts began to be formally divided into economic zones. Since August 1, 1925, the territory was divided into 40 districts and 706 districts. This administrative division lasted until February 9, 1932.
The modern administrative-territorial division of Ukraine mainly took shape in 1930-1950 - the years when the country was formed within its current borders.
Regions and districts of the Ukrainian SSR in 1932-1937
Vinnytsia region
Dnipropetrovsk region
Kyiv region
Odessa region
Kharkov region
Moldavian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (exists from October 12, 1924, the capital until 1929 is the city of Balta, then Tiraspol)
Administrative division at the end of 1932
Regions of the Ukrainian SSR in 1937-1939
Vinnytsia region
Dnipropetrovsk region
Donetsk region
Zhytomyr region (created from part of the Kyiv region)
Kamenets-Podolsk region (created from part of Vinnytsia region)
Kyiv region
Nikolaev region (from part of Odessa region)
Odessa region
Poltava region (from part of Kharkov region)
Kharkov region
Chernihiv region
Regions of the Ukrainian SSR in 1939-1940
Vinnytsia region
Dnipropetrovsk region
Zhytomyr Oblast
Zaporozhye region (created from part of the Dnepropetrovsk region)
Kamenets-Podolsk region
Kyiv region
Kirovograd region (created from part of the Mykolaiv region)
Nikolaevkskaya area
Odessa region
Poltava region
Sumy region (created from part of the Kharkov region)
Regions of the Ukrainian SSR in 1940-1945.
After Western Ukraine joined the Ukrainian SSR in 1939, 6 regions were formed (December 4, 1939):
Volyn region (center - Lutsk, 28 districts)
Drohobych region (30 districts)
Lviv region (37 districts)
Rivne region (30 districts)
Stanislavskaya region (34 districts)
Ternopil region (38 districts)
With the return of Bessarabia to Ukraine on August 7, 1940, 2 regions were created on its Ukrainian territory:
Chernivtsi region (from Khotyn region of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina)
Akkerman region (center - the city of Akkerman (Belgorod-Dnestrovsky) - from the southern Ukrainian-speaking regions of Bessarabia).
In most of Bessarabia, on June 28, 1940, the Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic was formed, to which half of the territory of the Moldavian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic, which was part of the Ukrainian SSR, was transferred. Another part of it was given to the Odessa region of the Ukrainian SSR.
On December 7, 1940, Izmail became the center of the Akkerman region, and the region itself was renamed Izmail.
In 1940, Proskuriv became the center of the Kamenets-Podolsk region instead of Kamenets-Podolsky (the name of the region did not change).
Thus, before World War II, there were 23 regions on the territory of the Ukrainian SSR.
During the Second World War, the territory of Ukraine was occupied.
On August 20, 1941, Hitler issued a decree on the creation of the Reichskommissariat " Ukraine" and Rosenberg's directive about administrative division of Ukraine . All territories were planned to be divided into Reichskommissariats.
The territory of Ukraine was divided into four parts, subordinate to different states and administrative bodies.
1) Chernivtsi and Izmail regions were included in Romania. Odessa region, southern regions of Vinnitsa, western regions of Nikolaev region, left-bank regions of Moldova were united into the governorate of “Transnistria” and also included in Romania.
2) Western lands - Drohobych, Lviv, Ternopil, Stanislav regions - as a separate district (district) called “Diskrikt Galicien” (“Galicia”) were annexed to the “Governor General” formed on the territory of Poland. which included Polish lands with its center in Krakow,
3) Chernigov, Sumy, Kharkov regions and Donbass, as front-line zones, were subordinate to the German military command.
4) The remaining Ukrainian lands were part of the Reichskommissariat “Ukraine” with its center in the city of Rivne. It was divided into six districts. E. Koch was appointed Reichskommissar of Ukraine.
5) Carpathian Ukraine has been occupied by Hungary since 1939.
Kharkov region
Chernihiv region
Regions of the Ukrainian SSR in 1946-1954
Vinnytsia region
Volyn region
Voroshilovgrad region
Dnipropetrovsk region
Drohobych region
Zhytomyr Oblast
Transcarpathian region (created on January 22, 1946 on the territory of Transcarpathian Ukraine, which passed to the Ukrainian SSR after the end of the Great Patriotic War)
Zaporozhye region
Izmail region
Kamenets-Podolsk region
Kyiv region
Kirovograd region
Lviv region
Nikolaevkskaya area
Odessa region
Poltava region
Rovenskaya region
Stalin region
Stanislav region
Sumy region
Ternopil region (name changed from Tarnopilskaya on August 9, 1944 due to a change in the name of the regional center)
Kharkov region
Kherson region (created on March 30, 1944 from parts of Mykolaiv and Zaporozhye regions)
Chernivtsi region
Chernihiv region
In addition, in 1944-1951 the borders of the Ukrainian SSR (and BSSR) with Poland changed somewhat.
So in October 1944, Gorinetsky, Lyubachivsky, Lyashkivsky, Sinyavsky and Ugnivsky districts of the Lviv region passed to Poland.
In March 1945, Birchansky, Liskiwsky and the western part of the Przemysl (with center) district of the Drohobych region passed to Poland.
In May 1948, the Medikivsky district of the Drohobych region passed to Poland.
In 1951, the Nizhne-Ustrytsky district of the Drohobych region passed to Poland.
On February 15, the Zabuzhsky district (the administrative center is the city of Belz) transferred from Poland to the Ukrainian SSR. Now the city of Chervonograd is located on the territory of the district.
Administrative division at the end of 1954.
In honor of the tercentenary of the reunification of Ukraine and Russia in administrative staff The Ukrainian SSR has undergone significant changes:
February 4, 1954 Kamenets-Podolsk region was renamed Khmelnitsky (the name of the administrative center changed from Proskurov to Khmelnitsky)
On February 15, 1954, the Izmail region was annexed to the Odessa region. At the same time, some districts of the Odessa region moved to the neighboring Kirovograd and Nikolaev regions).
On January 7, 1954, the Cherkasy region was created (from parts of the Kyiv, Poltava, and Kirovograd regions).
Administrative division of the Ukrainian SSR in 1970-1990.
Since 1954, the following changes have occurred on the map of the Ukrainian SSR:
On March 5, 1958, the Voroshilovgrad region was renamed (together with the administrative center) into the Lugansk region.
On May 21, 1959, all districts of the Drohobych region, which was liquidated, were included in the Lviv region.
On November 9, 1961, the Stalin region was renamed (together with the administrative center) into the Donetsk region.
On November 9, 1962, the Stanislav region was renamed (together with the administrative center) into the Ivano-Frankivsk region.
In January 1965, the Talalaevsky district of the Sumy region became part of the Chernigov region of the Ukrainian SSR.
On January 5, 1970, the Lugansk region was renamed (together with the administrative center) into the Voroshilovgrad region.
Thus, there were 25 regions in the Ukrainian SSR.
Further changes in the administrative structure of the Ukrainian SSR are associated only with the renaming of the Voroshilovgrad region (center Lugansk) to the Lugansk region (center Lugansk) in connection with the renaming of the regional center on May 4, 1990.
On February 12, 1991, the status of the Crimean region was changed to an autonomous republic (Autonomous Republic of Crimea), the city of republican subordination of Kyiv was removed from the Kyiv region. Sevastopol was withdrawn from the Crimean region and transferred to all-Union jurisdiction back in 1948. De facto, simultaneously with the change in the status of the capital of the Ukrainian SSR Kyiv, the status of Sevastopol was changed, but no legal documents on this matter were issued, which is the breeding ground for the politicization of the status of the city of Sevastopol.
Since the collapse of the Soviet Union, the total number of regions of Ukraine has also increased, some cities of district subordination have transferred to the regional, new cities and towns have appeared.(jcomments on)
dictionary of terms: select the letter with which the desired term begins and follow the link.
ABRASIVE MACHINING (eng. abrasive machining) is a mechanical processing process carried out by abrasive grains used as a tool. This includes: grinding, honing, finishing, superfinishing, etc.
ABRASIVE RESISTANCE - the ability of a material to resist abrasive wear (see abrasive wear). Another option is the ability to resist abrasive loads.
ABRASIVE SCRATCH (scratch, scratch, scuff) - a depression on the treated surface formed as a result of exposure to an abrasive grain or group of grains during abrasive processing, the depth of which exceeds greatest height surface profile irregularities (GOST 23505-79).
ABRASIVE STONE - an abrasive tool in the form of a solid body, designed for processing without rotation around its axis (GOST 21445).
ABRASIVE CHIP (chipping) is a violation of the edges of the processed workpiece that appears as a result of abrasive processing (GOST 23505-79).
ABRASIVE GRAIN - a particle of abrasive material in the form of a single crystal, polycrystal or their fragments.
ABRASIVE WEAR (abrasive wear) - mechanical wear of a material as a result of cutting or scratching action solids or solid particles (GOST 27674-88).
ABRASIVE TOOL – a cutting tool designed for abrasive processing (GOST 21445). Consists of abrasive materials (grains) held together by a bond. Typically hard (eg grinding wheels, stones) and soft (eg sandpaper, belts, pastes). Also classified according to geometric shape, type of abrasive material, grit size, bond, hardness and structure.
ABRASIVE MATERIAL – natural (natural) or artificial abrasive material whose grains or powders are capable of cutting the surface of solid bodies. Natural abrasive materials, for example, include: corundum, emery, garnet, flint, etc. Artificial ones: diamond, electrocorundum, monocorundum, silicon carbide, boron carbide.
ADHESION (eng. adhesion) - the adhesion force that occurs in rubbing areas between adjacent surfaces.
ADSORPTION LAYER - a layer that appears on a metal as a result of the adsorption of atoms or molecules environment and impeding the corrosion process (GOST 5272-68), see also the terms: protective film, oxide film.
ADHESIVE WEAR - wear caused by limited adhesion between contacting hard surfaces, resulting in transfer of metal between surfaces or loss of metal from any of the surfaces (particles that are removed from one surface are temporarily or permanently attached to another surface.
DIAMOND (synthetic) - a tool material obtained from graphite under high pressure and temperature conditions and having crystal structure and properties of natural diamond.
DIAMOND TOOL - a tool whose working part is made of diamond (monocrystal, polycrystal or diamond powder, GOST 25751). It can be on organic, metallic or galvanic bonds and saturated with diamonds of various fractions for processing superhard materials. Diamond tools include circles (also known as diamond wheels), cups, files, whetstones, sandpaper, etc.
ORANGE PEEL is a common defect in metal polishing, in which the surface becomes lumpy. Occurs, as a rule, during mechanized or very long processing and due to the uneven hardness of the polished surface. Most often it appears due to overheating and strong carburization, which occurs with high pressure on the tool and a long polishing time (A.I. Butkarev, “Polishing”, M. 2001).
AUTENSITE is a solid solution based on a-iron with a face-centered cubic lattice. In pure iron it exists at temperatures between 910C and 1401C. Can be residual and converted.
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P.S.
The dictionary of sharpener terms is an attempt to put together technical terms and definitions that sharpeners of various directions use in communication with each other, including. hairdressing and manicure tools. The sharpener's dictionary of terms is constantly updated and, if necessary, adjusted. I hope that the information posted in it will help professional communication between sharpeners both among themselves and with their clients...
The given terms are collected from GOSTs (1020-97, 11708-82, 18296-72, 18970-84, 20847-75, 21014-88, 21445-84, 23.002-78, 23505-79, 25751-83, 25725-99, 25761-83,25762-83, 27674-88, 2789-73, 28071-89, 28549.7-90, 5272-68, 53343-09, 5632-2014, 3.1109-82, 9-008-82, R 51142-98 , R 52381, etc.), specialized literature, reference books on metal processing, sharpener reference books, as well as various Internet resources, incl. technical dictionaries, forums, etc...
The dictionary began to be compiled for personal use. Its first version, including 148 terms, was first published on August 2, 2009 in the BLOG ABOUT SHARPENING (until October 1, 2009, assistance in editing the dictionary was provided by S. Kiselev from Kiev, Ukraine)...
ZAT (Dnepr, Ukraine)
Created 08/02/09, last update - 08/27/19
August 25, 2019
05 August 2019
All the best for you and a light hand in writing complex texts!
Photo: http://www.scribblelive.com
ZAT (Dnepr, Ukraine)01 August 2019
July 25, 2019
It turns out that a detailed answer to this question can only be given with the help of modern knowledge of quantum physics. Doctor of Science Jacqui Romero, commenting on a question that was first formulated in Ancient Greece, explains that in quantum physics, cause-and-effect relationships were not always direct and did not mean that one thing must necessarily lead to something else.
“The amazing thing about quantum mechanics is that events can happen without a set order,” she said. Therefore, the correct answer, which must have an overwhelming quantum physical evidence base, is that the chicken and the egg appeared at the same time.
To formulate a proof of this answer, this group of physicists conducted an experiment with light. Romero explained the essence of the experiment using the example of how a person gets to work. If we are talking about the fact that he travels by bus and by metro, this often means that he first travels by bus, and then by train.
However, this does not apply quantum physics. "In our experiment, both events can happen simultaneously. This is called 'indeterminate cause-and-effect order,' and this is what we can observe in our Everyday life", the specialist added. Observing this process in the laboratory, scientists used a device called a photonic quantum switch.
This device can change the shape of light using polarization. “By measuring the polarization of quantum switch photons, we saw that changes in the shape of light have no order,” physicist Fabio Costa also said. “This is only the first proof of this principle, but on a larger scale, an indefinite cause-and-effect order can have real practical applications. They can make computers more efficient and improve communications."
So now you know the correct answer to a riddle that is over a thousand years old. True, if someone wants to study the entire volume of multi-page evidence, he will have to go to distant Australia.
July 20, 2019
July 10, 2019
05 July 2019
On the First Professional website, these articles, in many cases, received a different name, the terms often used in them were replaced with slang expressions (for example, the word “nippers” was replaced with “pincers”), plus in some places the text of my articles was arbitrarily changed . Not a single article of mine was signed with my name, and only under one of the eight articles was the source somehow indicated without using an active link.
Their site does not have any other text content other than prices for services and sales at the time of writing these words. After refusing my request to delete all this, the guys began to fuss - they changed the source under one article and stated that since they THEMSELVES changed my articles, now these eight articles belong not to me, but to them. And, accordingly, now they will not delete “their” articles.
That's how, simple guys from Chelyabinsk, eight of my articles were stolen. To be honest, I have never understood sharpeners who steal from their fellow professionals - i.e. from those of their own who earn their food and life in the same difficult way as themselves... It turns out that their own people steal from their own people and are still proud of it?.. The reader’s opinion on the issues raised is interesting. I will be grateful to those who express it in the comments. Thank you)
2. supplemented...
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By the way, quite recently, a very interesting article by Zariah Gorvette entitled “” was published on the Sharpening Blog. The article describes very well various situations and explains why this happens. Surprisingly, everything is often explained quite simply, although this simplicity does not make it much easier for those who have encountered such cases.
Recently, in the comments to an article, one of the readers shared his idea. In this regard, I remembered a memorable interesting case from my small sharpening practice, when I shared my idea with a much more experienced colleague. As usual, he rejected it first (" it is impossible to determine the functionality of the tool from photographs"), and after waiting for some time, I finalized it, modified it a little, incl. and under his own ego, and now it has a different name and another person calls himself its author. You can read more about this interesting story in the article "?". How did I deal with the reader's idea? - I offered him a platform and full support so that he could develop and implement it himself.
Professional hairdressing scissors require timely, constant care and maintenance. Modern hairdressing scissors are a complex mechanism, made and assembled with high precision, using modern technologies, knowledge of metallurgy and the latest advances in the field of sharpening.
And the style of your handling and care of scissors determines their reliability, how long the blades remain sharp and their durability, and therefore your successful work. If you always keep your scissors well cleaned and lubricated, constantly monitor the correct adjustment and tension of the blades and treat them with care, then your scissors will be able to stay sharp for a longer time. It all depends on you and the quality of your scissors. I have clients who work for 1, 2 and even 3 years before re-sharpening. Perhaps a few simple recommendations will help you extend the life and interval between sharpenings for your scissors as well.
Nowadays it is customary to talk about Ukraine as the largest country in Europe. This is, in general, correct. Now the area of Ukraine is almost 604 thousand km 2, while the area of France is only 547 thousand km 2, and Spain is 497. Only Russia is larger than Ukraine with its 3.7 million km 2.
However, one must understand a simple thing - Ukraine itself, in fact, did not contribute to the expansion of its territory. Let us consider some stages in the formation of the borders of modern Ukraine.
The first Ukrainian state itself can be considered the state created by Bohdan Khmelnytsky during the liberation war against Poland (Rzeczpospolita).
To be fair, it should be noted that Khmelnytsky has never been a fighter for the independence of Ukraine. His correspondence with the Polish king leaves no doubt that he fought for the legal order in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in general (we remember that his estate was subject to an attempted “raider takeover”) and for the rights of the Orthodox gentry in particular. Having not met with understanding, he received what he was looking for from the Moscow Tsar.
As of 1654, the borders of the state of Bohdan Khmelnytsky looked like this:
It is quite obvious that the hetman had no claim to southern lands, Crimea and Donbass. This was all the area of the “Wild Field”, controlled by the Crimean Khan, who, at that time, was an ally of Khmelnitsky.
He also did not lay claim to the lands of Slobozhanshchina, which, although inhabited by refugees from Ukraine, were nevertheless under the rule of the Russian Tsar.
Galicia and Volyn were partially liberated during the war of liberation, but after the defeat at Berestechko they remained under the control of the Poles. Khmelnitsky, by the way, did not seek to liberate territories, but only Orthodox people. That is why he limited himself to indemnity from Lvov - there was, in fact, no one to liberate there, the Ukrainians (or rather, the Rusyns) lived there only on one Russkaya street, and even those, it must be understood, fled from possible reprisals from the Poles.
Well, there was no talk at all about Transcarpathia, which was part of Hungary.
Borders of Ukraine in the Russian Empire
When we talk about the times of Catherine II, they prefer to remember the defeat of the Zaporozhye Sich and the official introduction of serfdom (de facto, it existed before that). However, it is somehow naturally forgotten that it was during the Russian-Turkish wars of the 18th century that the former lands of the “Wild Field” – Novorossiya and Crimea – were settled (by the way, largely by Ukrainians). The latter was annexed to the Russian Empire in 1783.
It was then that they were founded Largest cities modern South of Ukraine - Elisavetgrad (Kirovograd, 1775), Ekaterinoslav (Dnepropetrovsk, 1776), Kherson (1778), Nikolaev (1789), Odessa (1794).
After the death of Catherine, in 1812, Bessarabia - Moldova and Budzhak - part of the current Odessa region between the Prut and Dniester rivers was annexed to Russia.
If this is “occupation”, then the lands of the Nogai and Crimean Tatars. The Nogai horde, by the way, collapsed, and the Nogais now live in Russia and Turkey.
In addition, as a result of the second and third partitions of Poland in 1793-1795, Right Bank Ukraine and Volyn were annexed to Russia. The remaining Western Ukrainian territories (Galicia, Bukovina and Transcarpathia) remained part of Austria-Hungary.
The Russian Empress did not only what the hetmans could not do, but also what the hetmans did not even plan.
Surprisingly, today’s “patriots” do not feel any gratitude to Catherine for such a radical expansion of the borders of Ukraine. True, speaking against monuments to Catherine, they are in no hurry to return the lands that she annexed. Moreover, Southern Ukraine (not to mention Crimea), unlike the Right Bank and Volyn, was in no way a Ukrainian ethnic territory and became one precisely thanks to Russian conquests. Unless, of course, we talk about the “proto-Ukrainian Tripoli civilization,” which was located mainly on the territory of Romania and Moldova.
The period of “free zmagan”
The period after the collapse of the Russian Empire did not produce any special territorial acquisitions. No, there are many absolutely fantastic maps of the Ukrainian People's Republic, covering not only Galicia, but also Kuban.
However, in fact, the UPR was only one of the state entities created on the territory of the Ukrainian provinces of the Russian Empire. In 1917 this territory was divided between four state entities.
In 1918, this territory was united by the German occupation administration, which created the puppet state of Hetman Skoropadsky. Hetman, later, had to flee along with the German occupiers...
The revived UPR managed to unite with the Western Ukrainian People's Republic, but this unification was formal, since at that moment the WUNR did not have its own territory, but was represented by the government of Petrushevich and the Ukrainian Galician Army... Moreover, after the “unification” the WUNR continued to wage its war against the Poles , later finding it possible to cooperate with the “Muscovites” - first with the Whites, and then with the Reds.
The UPR, in fact, did not control its territory, since, in addition to itself, the quasi-state of Father Makhno, the White Guard army-state, and, ultimately, the Ukrainian Socialist Soviet Republic, created in March 1919, were located on it. No wonder it was said that “in the carriage is the Directory, under the carriage is the territory.”
Petliura, by the way, ended up collaborating with the Poles, finally abandoning both the “evil” with the Western Ukrainian People’s Republic and the territory of Western Ukraine.
Ultimately, in 1920-1922, most of the Ukrainian lands (including Transnistria) were united within the Ukrainian SSR, which, in turn, became part of the USSR. Part of the Ukrainian lands remained under Polish and Romanian occupation.
Started in 1939 new stage unification of Ukrainian lands.
In September 1939, the USSR liberated the territories of Western Ukraine, previously captured by Poland. Now Soviet Union they scold for “aggression” against Poland, condemn “collaboration” with Hitler and condemn the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, but, for some reason, do not propose to draw legal conclusions from this. The legal conclusions should be to return the territory of Galicia, Volyn and part of Podolia to Poland, which “innocently suffered from Soviet aggression.” It’s strange - we condemn the annexation of Galicia to Ukraine, but we are in no hurry to give it back.
Even more surprising is this... The same people who condemn the “Soviet occupation” of Western Ukraine also condemn the Polish occupation of the same territories in 1918. However, they are at least tolerant of their re-occupation by the Poles in 1920...
In 1940, the USSR presented an ultimatum to Romania, demanding the return of the lands occupied in 1918. Romania ceded the territories of Northern Bukovina and Bessarabia.
A separate story took place in Transcarpathia, which, after the collapse of Czechoslovakia, declared its independence in the status of Carpathian Ukraine (without, of course, seeking to join Soviet Ukraine - there was no other one at that time). It existed for only a few days, being occupied by Hungary.
In 1945, Transcarpathia was liberated from the German-Hungarian occupiers, returned to Czechoslovakia, and then transferred to the USSR.
Let us note that we are talking about a region that historically was part of Hungary for several centuries and even now does not territorially associate itself with Ukraine (a common expression for Transcarpathians is “to go to Ukraine,” for example, to Lviv).
And finally, in 1954, Crimea was transferred from the RSFSR to the Ukrainian SSR. The official reason is “given the commonality of the economy, territorial proximity and close economic and cultural ties between the Crimean region and the Ukrainian SSR.” Along with Crimea, Sevastopol also became part of Ukraine, although the legal basis for the transfer of the city to republican subordination was not obvious. However, until the first half of the 90s, the question of the city’s status was not raised, and was later resolved in favor of Ukraine.
However, the process also went in other directions. In 1940, Transnistria (Moldavian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic) was transferred to Moldova. In 1945, part of the territory of Western Ukraine, including the cities of Przemysl and Kholm, went to Poland. When clarifying the administrative boundaries within the USSR, some areas were transferred to Russia, and some, on the contrary, to Ukraine.
Ukraine's borders to independence
However, in the name of Euro-Atlantic integration, Viktor Yushchenko sacrificed part of the continental shelf in favor of Romania. Although there was every reason not to give up the shelf with energy deposits. To do this, it was enough not to recognize the territory as disputed...
conclusions
Historically, the territory of Ukraine is represented by approximately 8 regions of central Ukraine.
No Ukrainian government could annex or hold Western Ukraine (including Transcarpathia) - there was not enough strength. Even when separate Ukrainian states were created on this territory, they could not maintain control over the territory. This turned out to be within the capabilities of Tsarist Russia and the Stalinist USSR.
Southern Ukraine, Donbass and Crimea annexed Russian Empire and transferred to Ukraine by the USSR. Actually, the territory of the “largest state in Europe” was formed by Catherine II and Stalin, and it received relative independence, which generally allowed us to talk about some kind of “borders of Ukraine,” from the hands of Lenin.
So people talking about the “Russian” and “Soviet” occupation should be prepared to revise the borders of Ukraine - in favor of other victims of the “Russian” and “Soviet” “occupation”. For, so to speak, our and your freedom... Or, nevertheless, “Freedom”?
In exchange for Crimea, Ukraine gave Russia its own territories.
Historical reality
In 1954, Ukraine did not give any territories to Russia in exchange for Crimea. All exchanges took place earlier, and a number of Ukrainian ethnic lands were initially part of the RSFSR.
In Russian-Ukrainian discussions about historical rights to Crimea, the Ukrainian side often resorts to the argument that the peninsula was not transferred “just like that,” but in exchange for certain territories of the Ukrainian SSR. In particular, it is argued that these were “equal in area” territories of Northern Slobozhanshchina, Taganrozhye, or even Kuban and Stavropol.
In fact, there was no exchange between the republics in 1954. The Ukrainian SSR received the Crimean region, but in return did not transfer any territories to the Russian SFSR. With the exception of Crimea, The Ukrainian-Russian Soviet administrative border was finally formed in 1928. That is, the last exchange of territories between the Ukrainian SSR and the RSFSR took place 26 years before the transfer of Crimea (see:).
So called “territories given in exchange for Crimea”, which Ukrainian commentators often erroneously recall, can be divided into two categories.
Firstly, these are territories that are actually belonged to Soviet Ukraine, but were transferred to Russia back in 1919-1928:, Starodubshchina (northern districts of Chernigov province), Taganrozhye, Eastern Donbass. For more information about territory exchanges during this period, see
Secondly, these are Ukrainian ethnic areas within the RSFSR, which were never part of Soviet Ukraine: Kuban, Stavropol, most of the Northern Slobozhanshchina, and the like. Since these territories were not part of the Ukrainian SSR, Ukraine could not “transfer” or “exchange” them.
They could not be transferred or exchanged, but during the 1920s the Ukrainian Soviet leadership consistently, although unsuccessfully, insisted on the inclusion of some territories with a Ukrainian ethnic majority in the Ukrainian SSR.
In my time it was the ethnographic criterion that was used as the basis for the formation of the UPR, and then the Ukrainian SSR. When considering the border issue in 1924, the Russian-Ukrainian commission agreed to base its decisions on “a national-ethnographic moment, adjusted in some cases on the basis of economic gravity where the latter is clearly expressed, and to the sign of straightening administrative boundaries in relation to the smallest administrative units / district, parish, settlement /”.
Ukrainian population of the European part of the RSFSR according to. (From the Atlas of Ukraine. Similar diaspora. - K., MAPA, 1993.)
Although even the Comintern supported the ethnographic criterion in its resolution of December 24, 1924, the Kremlin actually ignored it: by the decision of the Presidium of the USSR Central Executive Committee of October 16, 1925, Ukraine transferred Eastern Donbass and Taganrozhye to Russia, but in return received only minor territories, instead of the expected Northern Slobozhanshchina (parts of Kursk and Voronezh provinces). Then and later, the union center rejected all requests for the transfer of Ukrainian ethnic territories to the Ukrainian SSR.
But under the influence of these petitions and as a result of direct pressure from the Ukrainian side, in areas of the RSFSR predominantly populated by Ukrainians, the official attitude towards the national and cultural needs of Ukrainians improved. In a number of regions, the policy initiated by the 12th Congress of the RCP(b) began to be actually implemented “indigenization,” which in relation to Ukrainians took on the form of “Ukrainization.”
Such assistance was put to an end by the resolutions of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks) and the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR of December 14 and 15, 1932, according to which “Ukrainization” outside the Ukrainian SSR was declared “Petliurist” and was immediately curtailed.
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