A new significant moment in Russian foreign policy in the mid-17th century was the rapid expansion of the borders of the Russian state to Pacific Ocean and the associated establishment of relations with states Central Asia And Far East. In a short period of time, Siberia was annexed to Russia.

By the 1930s, a favorable international situation was developing (exacerbation of Polish-Turkish relations and the Thirty Years' War in Europe) for the fight against the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth for the return of Smolensk. In December of the same year, Smolensk was besieged by Russian troops commanded by boyar M.B. Shein. The siege lasted eight months and ended unsuccessfully. The new Polish king Vladislav IV, who arrived in time, in turn blocked Shein’s army. In June 1634, the Polyanovsky Peace Treaty was concluded. All the cities captured at the beginning of hostilities were returned to the Poles, and Smolensk remained with them. Vladislav finally abandoned his claims to the Moscow throne. In general, the results of the Smolensk War were considered unsuccessful, and the culprits, Shein and Izmailov, were executed. New military clashes between the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and Russia began in 1654.

At first, the war was successful for Russia: Smolensk and 33 other cities in Eastern Belarus (Polotsk, Vitebsk, Mogilev, etc.) were taken in the first campaign. At the same time, the Swedes invaded Poland and occupied its large territory. Then, in October 1656, Russia concluded a truce with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, and in May of the same year began a war with Sweden in the Baltic states. Having captured a number of fortresses, the Russians approached Riga, but the siege was unsuccessful. The war also took place in the lands of the Neva, where, in particular, the Swedish city of Nyenschanz, which was of great strategic and commercial importance, was taken, built by the Swedes near the mouth of the Neva at the confluence of the Okhta River. Meanwhile, Poland resumed hostilities. Therefore, first a truce was concluded with Sweden, and then in 1661 - the Peace of Kardisa (in the town of Kardisa near Tartu), according to which the entire Baltic coast remained with Sweden.

The war with Poland, during which the warring parties had varying success, was long and ended with the signing of the Truce of Andrusovo in 1667 for 13.5 years. Smolensk and all the lands east of the Dnieper were returned to Russia, and then by the conclusion of the “Eternal Peace” in 1686, which assigned Kyiv to Russia forever. The end of the war with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth allowed Russia to actively resist the aggressive intentions of the Ottoman Empire.

Back in 1637, the Don Cossacks captured the Turkish fortress of Azov, but, unsupported by Moscow troops, they were forced to leave it in 1642. In August 1677 and July 1678, the Ottomans made attempts to take the fortress on the Right Bank of Ukraine - Chigirin. The second time they succeeded, the Russians left Chigirin. In January 1681, the Bakhchisarai Truce was signed for 20 years. The Ottomans recognized Russia's right to Kyiv, and the lands between the Dnieper and Bug were declared neutral.

Having concluded the “Eternal Peace” with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1686, Russia simultaneously accepted obligations in alliance with Poland, Austria and Venice to oppose the Crimea and the Ottoman Empire, which, however, was important for Russia itself, since it provided access to the Black Sea . The consequence of this were two Crimean campaigns by V. Golitsyn. During the first one in 1687, the Tatars set fire to the steppe, and due to a lack of water, food and fodder, the Russian army was forced to return.

The second campaign allowed the 100,000-strong Russian army to reach Perekop, but the troops, exhausted by the heat and continuous skirmishes with the Tatars, did not dare to enter the Crimea. Foreign policy tasks, therefore, remained the same - in the future there was a struggle for access to the seas.

Thus, Russia in the 17th century, as in the previous century, faced the same foreign policy tasks: the return of ancient Russian lands, access to the Baltic and Black Sea coast, continuation of the struggle with the successor of the Golden Horde - the Crimean Khanate and the powerful Turkey behind it. The simultaneous implementation of all these tasks was beyond Russia’s capabilities, but some of everything was done.

As a result of a series of wars, Ukraine was reunited with Russia in 1654, and Siberia was annexed in a short period. The war with Poland ended with the signing of the Truce of Andrusovo in 1667 for 13.5 years, according to which Smolensk and all lands east of the Dnieper were returned to Russia, and then with the conclusion of the “Eternal Peace” in 1686, which assigned Kyiv to Russia forever . The end of the war with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth allowed Russia to actively resist the aggressive intentions of the Ottoman Empire.

Chapter II. The process of formation of the absolutist state power of the new Romanov dynasty

2.1 Major changes in the political system of Russia

After the liberation of Moscow from the Polish interventionists, the government apparatus began to be restored, which began to establish connections with cities and counties of the country. In February 1613, at the Zemsky Sobor, a representative of the old Moscow boyars was elected tsar - 16-year-old Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov (1613 - 1645).

State power in Russia gradually evolved into absolute power. In structure government agencies, which limited the power of the tsar, the Boyar Duma and the Zemsky Sobor played a significant role.

The Boyar Duma, the highest body of the class-representative monarchy, included the top of the noble boyar aristocracy. Gradually, representatives of non-family families began to penetrate into the Boyar Duma - Duma nobles and Duma clerks, who occupied government positions thanks to their personal qualities and merits. The aristocratic character of the Boyar Duma decreases over time, its importance falls. Not the least role in this was played by the fact that along with it, under the first Romanovs, there was a “close” or “secret duma”, which consisted of a few trusted persons at the invitation of the tsar. TO end of XVII century, the importance of “close thoughts” has increased.

Zemsky Sobors, which were the representative body of boyars, nobles, clergy and the trade elite or posad, and in some cases peasants, met continuously in the first decade of the reign of Mikhail Romanov. They were engaged in raising money for the state treasury and collecting military men for wars.

Later, the growing autocracy resorted less and less to the help of Zemsky Sobors, the last one took place in 1686.

At the same time, the ideological and political significance of tsarist power grew. A new one was introduced state seal, and the word autocrat is introduced into the royal title. The ideology of autocracy rested on two provisions: the divine origin of royal power and the succession of the kings of the new dynasty from the Rurik dynasty. Accordingly, the person of the king was glorified, he was given a magnificent title, and all palace ceremonies were performed with solemnity and splendor.

With the strengthening of autocracy, changes also occur in its social support. The nobility became its basis, and they, in turn, were interested in strengthening the royal power.

In the 17th century, the nobility became stronger economically, not without the support of the autocracy. It is increasingly becoming a monopolist of feudal land ownership, gradually pushing aside the boyars and noble princely families in this regard. This was facilitated by the policy of granting land to the nobility mainly in the form of inherited possession - estates, which replaced the estate as a type of land ownership assigned to the owner only for the duration of his service to the sovereign. The rights of nobles also extended to serfs.

During the 17th century, the political role of the nobility also increased. It is successfully crowding out the high-born boyars in the state apparatus and in the army. In 1682, localism was abolished.

The strengthened autocratic state relied on a developed state administrative apparatus. The most important link central control orders remained, in the leadership of which the bureaucratic element clerks and clerks began to play a prominent role. Locally, the districts were governed by governors appointed by the government from among the nobles. All military, judicial and financial power was concentrated in their hands.

The evolution of the political system was accompanied by changes in armed forces. Since the 40s. In the 17th century, a system of recruiting soldier regiments with “dacha people” began to emerge. The first soldier, reiter and dragoon regiments were created. The state armed the soldiers and paid them salaries. The Russian regular national army was born.

The strengthening of absolutism in Russia affected the problem of the relationship between the autocracy and the church, secular and spiritual power, and demanded further subordination of the church to the state.

In this regard, in the 50s - 60s. Church reform was undertaken in the 17th century. It grew, firstly, from the needs of strengthening the state apparatus, including the church, for it was part of it. And, secondly, this reform was connected with the far-reaching foreign policy plans of the government of Alexei Mikhailovich, which included the unification of the Orthodox churches of Ukraine and the Balkan countries with the Russian Church, as one of the conditions for the unification of the Slavic Orthodox peoples with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and the Ottoman Empire.

The church reform was carried out abruptly by Patriarch Nikon. At the same time, while carrying out the reform, the patriarch also set theocratic goals: to create a strong church power that would be independent of the secular and stand above the royal power.

And if the reform of the church, which was carried out by the patriarch, met the interests of the Russian autocracy, then Nikon’s theocratism clearly contradicted the trends of growing absolutism. There is a gap between the king and the patriarch. Nikon was deposed and exiled to a monastery.

The reform ultimately led to a split in the Russian Church into the Mainstream Orthodox Church and the Old Believer Orthodox Church. The split caused a crisis of the church in Russia, its weakening and negative destabilizing social consequences for the internal life of the country.

The second half of the 17th century, despite all the difficulties and difficulties, became an important historical milestone in the development of Russia. International positions have somewhat strengthened. An all-Russian market was taking shape. The estate-representative monarchy evolved into an absolute one. She was faced with a number of life problems that had not been solved in the 17th century.

Among them, the following can be distinguished: firstly, it was necessary to break through to the sea borders, without which the rapid economic development of the country could not be ensured. Secondly, the struggle for Ukraine did not lead to the unification of the entire Ukrainian people with Russia. Right-bank Ukraine remained under Polish occupation. Thirdly, a regular army was needed. Fourthly, the country needed industrial development and trained personnel, which church education could not provide. Fifthly, peasant uprisings showed the ruling class the importance of strengthening the state apparatus.

Historically, the task of overcoming the backwardness of the country in economic, military and cultural terms has become urgent. The prerequisites for reforms were laid in the second half of the 17th century.

In the 17th century, the form of power was class - representative monarchy, which gradually evolved into absolute. The basis of autocratic power becomes the nobility, and not the boyar power. Power was built on a strong state apparatus, and was subordinate to the tsar; Zemsky Sobors were no longer convened.

2.2 Reign of Mikhail Fedorovich (1613 – 1645)

Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov is a Russian Tsar who laid the foundation for the Romanov royal dynasty. He was elected tsar at the Zemsky Sobor, held in January - February 1613. Mikhail Fedorovich was crowned king on July 11 of the same year, at the age of 16 years. After the “Troubles,” the country was ruined, its economy was in a deplorable state. In such conditions, the young king needed support. For the first ten years of Mikhail Fedorovich's reign, Zemsky Councils met almost continuously, which helped the young Romanov resolve important state issues. In the Zemsky Sobor, one of the main roles was played by Mikhail Fedorovich’s relatives on his mother’s side - the boyars Saltykovs. Mikhail Fedorovich, not without the help of Metropolitan Philaret, his father, leads an active domestic and foreign policy. For the first time during his reign, Mikhail Fedorovich paid great attention to international affairs. Foreign policy First Romanova was very productive.

In 1617, the “Peace of Stolbovo” or, as it is also called, “Eternal Peace”, was concluded with Sweden. According to which Russia lost access to the Baltic Sea, but received back its territories, which had previously been conquered by the Swedes. The borders established by the “Peace of Stolbovo” lasted until the “Northern War”.

In 1618, an eternal peace was concluded with Poland, called the “Truce of Deulin”. According to this document, Russia ceded the Smolensk and Chernigov lands to the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, and in return the Polish king renounced his claims to the Russian throne.

The domestic policy of Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov was more extensive and successful than the foreign one, although, of course, Russia achieved something at the international level. The main internal political problem of Mikhail Fedorovich was the impostors who had not calmed down after the “troubles”. In 1614, Marina Mnishek and her son Vorenok, who had previously been hiding in the Lower Volga region, were executed in Moscow. In 1619, Mikhail Fedorovich’s father, Metropolitan Filaret, returned from Polish captivity. Filaret considered that priority in the internal policy of the state should be given to strengthening the principles of autocracy. In connection with this, large lands were transferred into the possession of secular and church landowners, the nobility received land and privileges as a reward for their service, the process of assigning peasants to their owners was underway, by increasing the period of their search, the composition of the boyar duma expanded, but the circle of people with real power, on the contrary narrowed, the number of orders increases sharply.

In order to increase the authority of the central government, new state seals were introduced, and a new title “autocrat” appeared. After the defeat of Russian troops near Smolensk in 1634, Mikhail Fedorovich carried out military reform. The formation of cavalry infantry formations according to the Western model begins. The units were armed with new, modern weapons and operated according to new tactical schemes. The number of foreigners in Moscow has increased. Mikhail Fedorovich actively invited them to Russian service.

Lectures 7, 8. Russia under the first Romanovs in the 17th century.
PLAN:
1. Social and economic development of Russia in the 17th century.
2. Anti-state protests.
3. Evolution of the state-political system.
4. Russian foreign policy. Development of Siberia and the Far East.
5. Church reform. Russia under the first Romanovs in the 17th century.

TOPIC 7, 8. Russia under the first Romanovs in XVII century

PLAN:
1. Social and economic development of Russia in the 17th century.
2. Anti-state protests.
3. Evolution of the state-political system.
4. Russian foreign policy. Development of Siberia and the Far East.
5. Church reform.

LITERATURE
1. Buganov V.I. World of History. Russia in the 17th century. M., 1989.
2. History of Russia from ancient times to 1861 / Ed. N. I. Pavlenko. M, 2000.
3. History of the Fatherland in persons. From ancient times to the end of the 17th century. Biographical Encyclopedia. M., 1993.
4. Kargalov V.V. Stand strong on the borders of Rus'! Great Rus' and Wild Iole. Confrontation XIII-XVIII centuries. M., 1998.
5. Solovyov V. M. Contemporaries and descendants about the uprising of S. T. Razin. M., 1991.
6. Tarle E. V. International relations of Russia in the XVII-XVIII centuries. M., 1966.
7. Reader on the history of Russia. M., 1995. T. 2. Encyclopedia for children. T. 5. History of Russia. From the ancient Slavs to Peter the Great. M. 1995.

The ruling circles of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and the Catholic Church intended to divide Russia and eliminate its state independence. In a hidden form, the intervention was expressed in support of False Dmitry I and False Dmitry II. Open intervention under the leadership of Sigismund III began under Vasily Shuisky, when in September 1609 Smolensk was besieged and in 1610 a campaign against Moscow and its capture took place. By this time, Vasily Shuisky was overthrown by the nobles from the throne, and an interregnum began in Russia - Seven Boyars. The Boyar Duma made a deal with the Polish interventionists and was inclined to call the Polish king, the young Vladislav, a Catholic, to the Russian throne, which was a direct betrayal of the national interests of Russia. In addition, in the summer of 1610, a Swedish intervention began with the goal of separating Pskov, Novgorod, and the northwestern regions from Russia.
Under these conditions, it was only possible for the whole people to defend the independence of the Russian state and expel the invaders. External danger brought to the fore national and religious interests, which temporarily united the warring classes. As a result of the first people's militia (under the leadership of P. P. Lyapunov) and the second people's militia (led by Prince D. M. Pozharsky and K. M. Minin) in the fall of 1612, the capital was liberated from the Polish garrison.
The victory was won as a result of the heroic efforts of the Russian people. A symbol of loyalty to the Motherland is the feat of the Kostroma peasant Ivan Susanin, who sacrificed his own life in the fight against the Polish invaders. Grateful Russia erected the first sculptural monument in Moscow to Kozma Minin and Dmitry Pozharsky (on Red Square, sculptor I. P. Martos).
In 1613, the Zemsky Sobor took place V Moscow, where the question of choosing a new Russian Tsar was raised. The Polish prince Vladislav, the son of the Swedish king Karl Philip, the son of False Dmitry II and Marina Mnishek Ivan, nicknamed “Vorenko” (False Dmitry 11 - “Tushinsky thief”), as well as representatives of the largest boyar families were proposed as candidates for the Russian throne.
On February 21, the cathedral chose Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov, The 16-year-old grandnephew of Ivan the Terrible’s first wife, Anastasia Romanova. On July 11, Mikhail Fedorovich was crowned king. Soon his father, the patriarch, took the leading place in governing the country Filaret, who “mastered all royal and military affairs.” Power was restored in the form of an autocratic monarchy. The leaders of the fight against the interventionists received modest appointments. Dmitry Pozharsky was sent by the governor to Mozhaisk, and Kozma Minin became the Duma governor.
The government of Mikhail Fedorovich faced the most difficult The task is to eliminate the consequences of the intervention. The greatest danger to him was posed by the detachments of Cossacks who wandered around the country and did not recognize the new king. Among them is Ivan Zarutsky, to whom Marina Mnishek and her son moved. The Yaik Cossacks handed over I. Zarutsky to the Moscow government. I. Zarutsky and Vorenok were hanged, and Marina Mnishek was imprisoned in Kolomna, where she probably died soon.
The Swedes posed another danger. In 1617 a contract was concluded with them Pillar World(in the village of Stolbovo, near Tikhvin). Sweden returned the Novgorod land to Russia, but retained the Baltic coast and received monetary compensation.
In the village of Deulino near the Trinity-Sergius Monastery in 1618, a Truce of Deulino with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, which retained the Smolensk and Chernigov lands. There was an exchange of prisoners. Vladislav did not give up his claims to the Russian throne.
Thus, the main consequence events of the Time of Troubles in foreign policy there was a restoration of the territorial unity of Russia, although part of the Russian lands remained with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and Sweden.
Socio-economic development of Russia c.XVIIV. To the middle of the 17th century. the devastation and devastation of the Time of Troubles were overcome. The economy recovered slowly in conditions:
- preservation of traditional forms of farming (weak productivity of peasant farming with its primitive equipment and technology);
- sharply continental climate;
- low soil fertility in the Non-Black Earth Region - the most developed part of the country.
The leading sector of the economy remained Agriculture. Height production volumes were achieved through the involvement of new lands in economic circulation: Black Earth Region, Middle Volga Region, Siberia.
In the 17th century further growth of feudal land ownership, redistribution of land within the ruling class. The new Romanov dynasty, strengthening its position, made extensive use of the distribution of land to the nobles. In the central regions of the country, land ownership by black-growing peasants has practically disappeared. The desolation of the central counties as a result of a long crisis and the outflow of population to the outskirts was one of the reasons strengthening of serfdom.
In the 18th century there was a development of crafts into small-scale production. By the end of the 17th century. There were at least 300 cities in Russia, and the main areas of handicraft production were formed. The centers of metallurgy and metalworking, textiles, salt making, and jewelry were further developed.
The development of small-scale production prepared the basis for the emergence manufactory Manufacture is a large enterprise based on the division of labor and handcraft techniques. In the 17th century There were approximately 30 manufactories in Russia. The first state-owned manufactories arose in the 16th century. (Pushkarsky Dvor, Mint). The Nitsinsky copper smelter in the Urals, built in 1631, is considered the first privately owned manufactory.
Since there were no free workers in the country, the state began to assign, and later (1721) allowed factories to buy peasants. The assigned peasants had to work off their taxes to the state at a factory or plant at certain prices. The state provided enterprise owners with assistance with land, timber, and money. Manufactories founded with the support of the state later received the name "possession"(from the Latin word “possession” - possession). But until the 90s. XVII century metallurgy remained the only industry where manufactories operated.
The role and importance are increasing merchants in the life of the country. The constantly gathering fairs acquired great importance: Makaryevskaya (near Nizhny Novgorod), Svenskaya (in the Bryansk region), Irbitskaya (in Siberia), in Arkhangelsk, etc., where merchants carried out large wholesale and retail trade at that time.
Along with the development of domestic trade, foreign trade also grew. Until the middle of the century, huge benefits from foreign trade extracted by foreign merchants who exported timber, furs, hemp, etc. from Russia. The English fleet was built from Russian timber, and the ropes for its ships were made from Russian hemp. Arkhangelsk was the center of Russian trade with Western Europe. There were English and Dutch trading yards here. Close ties were established through Astrakhan with the countries of the East.
The Russian government’s support for the growing merchant class is evidenced by the publication of the New Trade Charter, which increased duties on foreign goods. Policy mercantilism It was also expressed in the fact that foreign merchants had the right to conduct wholesale trade only in border trading centers.
In the 17th century the exchange of goods between individual regions of the country expanded significantly, which indicated the beginning the formation of the all-Russian market. The merging of individual lands into a single economic system began.
Social structure of Russian society. The highest class in the country was boyars(among them were many descendants of former great and appanage princes). About a hundred boyar families owned estates, served the tsar and held leadership positions in the state. There was a process of rapprochement with the nobility.
Nobles constituted the upper layer of the sovereign's service people in the fatherland. They owned estates based on the right of inheritance in the event that children continued to serve after their parents. The nobility significantly strengthened its position at the end of the Time of Troubles and became the pillar of royal power. This layer of feudal lords included persons who served at the royal court (stewards, solicitors, Moscow nobles, etc.), as well as city officials, i.e., provincial nobles.
The major feudal lords were clergy, which had large land holdings and monasteries.
The lowest stratum of service people included service people by appointment or recruitment. It included archers, gunners, coachmen, service Cossacks, government craftsmen, etc.
Categories of the peasant population:

1. proprietary or privately owned, living on the lands of estates or
   estates. They bore taxes (a set of duties in favor of the feudal lord). Close
   Monastery peasants took their place among the privately owned peasants;
2. black-growing peasants. They lived on the outskirts of the country (Pomeranian
   North, Ural, Siberia, South), united into communities. They had no right to leave their lands unless they found a replacement. They bore taxes for the benefit of the state. “Black lands” could be sold, mortgaged, passed on by inheritance (i.e., the situation was easier than that of privately owned lands);
3. palace peasants, serving the economic needs of the royal court. They had self-government and were subordinate to palace clerks.

The top urban population was merchants. The richest of them (there were approximately 30 such people in Moscow in the 17th century) were declared “guests” by royal command. Many wealthy merchants united in two Moscow hundreds - the living room and the cloth one.
The bulk of the urban population was called townspeople. They united into a draft community. In many Russian cities, military officials and their families predominated among the residents. The bourgeoisie in the cities has not yet developed.
Urban artisans were united along professional lines into settlements and hundreds. They bore taxes - duties in favor of the state, elected their elders and sotskys (black settlements). In addition to them, in the cities there were white settlements that belonged to boyars, monasteries, and bishops. These settlements were “whitewashed” (freed) from bearing city taxes in favor of the state.
Before Peter's times, a significant number lived both in cities and in rural areas. slave slaves. Complete serfs were the hereditary property of their masters. Layer bonded slaves was formed from among previously free people who fell into a state of slavery (bondage - a receipt or promissory note). Bonded slaves served until the death of the creditor, unless they voluntarily accepted a new bondage in favor of the heir of the deceased.
Free and walking people(free Cossacks, children of priests, servicemen and townspeople, hired workers, wandering musicians and buffoons, beggars, vagabonds) did not end up in estates, estates or city communities and did not bear the state tax. From among them, service people were recruited according to the instrument. However, the state tried in every possible way to bring them under its control.
Thus, the 17th century. was an important stage in the socio-economic development of Russia. Both in agriculture and in industry especially (the emergence of manufactories) serious changes took place. However, there is no reason to talk about the emergence of capitalist relations in the country, the main feature of which is an increase in the share of free wage labor in the economy. The development of commodity-money, market relations, the growth of the number of manufactories (among the workers of which peasants dependent on the landowner or the state predominated) were observed in Russia in the conditions of the progressive movement of the feudal economy and the formation of the social structure of society. Formation of a single national market, First stage which dates back to the 17th century, occurred in the absence of elements of a capitalist economy based on undeveloped capitalist production.
Anti-state protests. The development of the country's economy was accompanied by large social movements. The 17th century is not named by chance "rebellious age" It was during this period that two peasant “unrest” took place (the uprising of I. Bolotnikov and the Peasant War led by S. Razin) and a number of urban uprisings in the middle of the century, as well as the Solovetsky riot and two Streltsy uprisings in the last quarter of the century.
The history of urban uprisings opens Salt riot 1648 in Moscow. Various segments of the capital’s population took part in it: townspeople, archers, nobles, dissatisfied with the policies of B.I. Morozova. By decree of February 7, 1646, a high tax on salt was introduced. And salt was the product that people of the 17th century refused to eat. There was no way they could. It was impossible to prepare food for future use without salt. In 1646-1648. salt prices increased 3-4 times. The people began to starve, while thousands of pounds of cheap fish rotted on the Volga: fish farmers, due to the high cost of salt, were unable to salt it. Everyone was unhappy. Less expensive salt was sold than before, and the treasury suffered significant losses. At the end of 1647, the salt tax was abolished, but it was too late...
The reason for the speech was the dispersal by the archers of a delegation of Muscovites who were trying to submit a petition to the tsar at the mercy of the officials. Pogroms began at the courts of influential dignitaries. The Duma clerk Nazariy Chistoy was killed, and the head of the Zemsky Prikaz, Leonty Pleshcheevider, was given over to the crowd. The Tsar managed to save only Morozov, urgently sending him into exile to the Kirillo-Belozersky Monastery.
The Moscow Salt Riot responded with uprisings of 1648-1650. in other cities. The most persistent and lengthy uprisings in 1650 were in Pskov and Novgorod. They were caused by a sharp increase in bread prices as a result of the government's commitment to supply grain to Sweden.
In 1662, the so-called Copper riot caused by the protracted Russian-Polish war and the financial crisis. Monetary reform (minting depreciated copper money) led to a sharp drop in the exchange rate of the ruble, which primarily affected the salaries of soldiers and archers, as well as artisans and small traders. Streltsy and “foreign order” regiments loyal to the tsar suppressed the rebellion. As a result of the brutal massacre, several hundred people died and 18 were publicly hanged.
The urban uprisings of the mid-century turned out to be a prelude to the Peasants' War led by S. T. Razina 1670-1671 This movement originated in the villages of the Don Cossacks. The Don freemen attracted fugitives from the southern and central regions of the Russian state. Here they were protected by an unwritten law - “there is no extradition from the Don.” The government, needing the services of the Cossacks for the defense of the southern borders, paid them a salary and put up with the self-government that existed there.
Stepan Timofeevich Razin, raising the people against the “traitor boyars,” spoke on behalf of Alexei (the son of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich), who had already died. The peasant war engulfed vast areas of the Don, Volga region, and Urals, and found a response in Ukraine. The rebels managed to capture Tsaritsyn, Astrakhan, Saratov, Samara and other cities. However, near Simbirsk, Razin was defeated, and then handed over to the “household” Cossacks and executed.
The social crisis was accompanied by an ideological crisis. Let's take the rum of the development of religious struggle into social is Solovetsky uprising 1668-1676 It began with the fact that the brethren of the Solovetsky Monastery flatly refused to accept the corrected liturgical books. The government decided to tame the rebellious monks by blockading the monastery and confiscating its land holdings. High thick walls and rich food supplies extended the siege of the monastery for several years. The Razinites, exiled to Solovki, also joined the ranks of the rebels. Only as a result of betrayal was the monastery captured; of its 500 defenders, only 60 remained alive.
In general, popular uprisings of the 17th century. had a dual significance for the development of the country. Firstly, they partly played the role of limiting the exploitation and abuse of authorities. And secondly, they further pushed for centralization and strengthening of the state apparatus.
Evolution of the state-political system. The beginning of the reign of the Romanov dynasty was the heyday of the class-representative monarchy. Under the young king Mikhail Fedorovich(1613-1645) the Boyar Duma seized power into its own hands, in which the relatives of the new tsar - the Romanovs, Cherkasskys, Saltykovs - played a significant role.
However, to strengthen centralized power in the state it was necessary constant support nobility and the elite of the urban settlement. Therefore, the Zemsky Sobor met almost continuously from 1613 to 1619. The role and competence of the Zemsky Sobors undoubtedly increased (under Tsar Michael the cathedral met at least 10 times), the elected element gained numerical dominance over the official ones. Nevertheless, the cathedrals still did not have independent political significance, therefore it is hardly appropriate to assert that in Russia there was a classical estate-representative monarchy of the Western model, even in relation to the 17th century, but we can talk about the elements of estate representation: Zemsky Sobor And Boyar Duma.
The point is that active work Zemsky Sobors was due to the temporary need of the new government to overcome the consequences of the Troubles. Those elected at the council were, as a rule, only required to express their opinion on a particular issue; it was the prerogative of the supreme authority to decide. The composition of the cathedral was changeable and lacked a stable organization, so it cannot be called an all-class body. Gradually, by the end of the 17th century. cathedral activities ceased.
In 1619, the father of Tsar Michael returned from Polish captivity Filaret (Fedor Nikitovich Romanov), at one time a real contender for the royal throne. In Moscow, he accepted the patriarchal rank with the title of “great sovereign” and became the de facto ruler of the state until his death in 1633.
The new Moscow government, in which the Tsar’s father, Patriarch Filaret, played a primary role, restoring the state after the Time of Troubles, was guided by the principle: everything should be as of old. The ideas of an electoral and limited monarchy, which matured in the era of unrest, did not take deep roots. To calm society and overcome devastation, a conservative policy was necessary, but the Troubles introduced many such changes into public life that, in fact, government policy turned out to be reformist (S. F. Platonov).
Measures are being taken to strengthen the autocracy. Huge lands and entire cities are transferred to large secular and spiritual landowners. Most of the estates of the middle nobility are transferred to the category of estates, new land plots are “complained” “for the service” of the new dynasty.
Changing appearance and meaning Boyar Duma. Due to the Duma nobles and clerks, its number increases from 35 people in the 30s. to 94 by the end of the century. Power is concentrated in the hands of the so-called Middle Duma, which at that time consisted of four boyars related to the tsar by family ties (I. N. Romanov, I. B. Cherkassky, M. B. Shein, B. M. Lykov). In 1625, a new state seal was introduced, and the word “autocrat” was included in the royal title.
With the limitation of the powers of the Boyar Duma, the importance of orders - their number constantly grew and at times reached fifty. The most important of them were the Local, Ambassadorial, Discharge, order of the Big Treasury, etc. Gradually, the practice of subordinating several orders to one government person in the state was established - in fact head of government. Thus, under Mikhail Fedorovich, the orders of the Great Treasury, Streletsky, Inozemny and Aptekarsky were in charge of the boyar I.B. Cherkassky, and from 1642 he was replaced by Romanov’s relative, F.I. Sheremetyev. Under Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, these orders were administered first by B.I. Morozov, then by I.D. Miloslavsky, the Tsar’s father-in-law.
IN local or management changes occurred that testified to the strengthening of the centralization principle: zemstvo elected bodies, which appeared in the middle of the 16th century, began to be gradually replaced by stricter control from the center through voivode In general, a rather contradictory picture emerged: at a time when zemstvo elected representatives were called upon from the districts to resolve issues senior management next to the boyars and metropolitan nobles, district voters were given over to the power of these boyars and nobles (voevoda) (V. O. Klyuchevsky).
Under Filaret, she restored her shaky position church. With a special letter, the tsar transferred into the hands of the patriarch the trial of the clergy and monastery peasants. The land holdings of the monasteries expanded. Patriarchal judicial and administrative-financial orders appeared. The Patriarchal court was structured according to the royal model.
Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov died in June 1645. The issue of succession to the throne had to be decided by the Zemsky Sobor, because in 1613 it was not the Romanov dynasty that was elected to the kingdom, but Mikhail personally. According to the old Moscow tradition, the crown was given to the son of Mikhail Fedorovich Alexey, who was 16 years old at the time. The Zemsky Sobor took him to the throne. Unlike his father, Alexey did not undertake any written obligations to the boyars, and formally nothing limited his power.
Into Russian history ALexey Mikhailovich Romanov(1645-1676) entered as Ageksey the Quiet. Gregory Kotoshikhln called Alexei “much quiet,” and the foreigner Augustin Mayerberg was surprised that the tsar, “who had unlimited power over a people accustomed to complete slavery, did not encroach on anyone’s honor and property.”
The point, of course, was not only the balanced character of Alexei the Quiet. By the middle of the 15th century. the centralization of the Russian state increased noticeably. After the shocks of the Time of Troubles, central and local authorities had already been restored, and extreme measures were not required to govern the country.
Alexei Mikhailovich's domestic policy reflected the dual nature of his time. The quiet king wanted to observe the customs of Old Moscow Russia. But, seeing the successes of the West European countries, he simultaneously sought to adopt their achievements. Russia balanced between paternal antiquity and European innovations. Unlike his decisive son, Peter the Great, Alexei the Quiet did not carry out reforms that would break “Moscow piety” in the name of Europeanization. Descendants and historians assessed this differently: some were indignant at the “weak Alexei,” others saw in him the “true wisdom of the ruler.”
Tsar Alexei strongly encouraged reformers such as A. P. Ordin-Nashchokin, F. M. Rtishchev, Patriarch Nikon, A. S. Matveev and etc.
In the first years of Alexei's reign, the Tsar's educator enjoyed special influence. Boris Ivanovich Morozov. A powerful and intelligent man, Morozov promoted the penetration of European achievements into Russia, encouraged the printing of translations and European books in every possible way, invited foreign doctors and craftsmen to the Moscow service, and loved theatrical performances. Not without his participation, the reorganization of the Russian army began. The noble cavalry and people's militia were gradually replaced regiments of the new formation- a regular army, trained and equipped in a European manner.
One of the main achievements of the reign of Alexei Mikhailovich was the adoption Cathedral Code(1649). This is grandiose for the 17th century. The code of laws has long played the role of the All-Russian Legal Code. Attempts to adopt a new Code were made under Peter I and Catherine II, but both times were unsuccessful.
Compared to its predecessor - the Code of Law of Ivan the Terrible (1550), the Council Code, in addition to criminal law, also includes state and civil law, therefore it is therefore not
What is surprising is not only the completeness, but also the speed of adoption of the code. This entire extensive vault in the project was developed by a commission of the prince specially created by royal decree Nikita Ivanovich Odoevsky, then discussed at a specially convened Zemsky Sobor in 1648, corrected on many articles, and adopted on January 29. Thus, all discussion and acceptance
The code of almost 1000 articles took only a little more than six months - an unprecedentedly short period even for a modern parliament!
The reasons for such rapid adoption of new laws were as follows.
Firstly, the very alarming atmosphere of that time in Russian life forced the Zemsky Sobor to hurry. Popular uprisings in 1648 in Moscow and other cities forced the government and elected representatives to improve the affairs of the court and legislation.
Secondly, since the time of the Code of Law of 1550, many private decrees have been adopted for various cases. Decrees were collected in orders, each with its own type of activity, and then recorded in Decree books. These latter were guided by the clerks along with the Code of Law in administrative and judicial matters.
Over the course of a hundred years, a great many legal provisions have accumulated, scattered under different orders, sometimes contradicting each other. This complicated the administration of the order and gave rise to a lot of abuses from which the petitioners suffered. It was required, according to the successful formulation of S. F. Platonov, “instead of a mass of separate laws, to have one code.” Thus, the reason that stimulated legislative activity was the need to systematize and codify laws.
Thirdly, too much has changed and moved in Russian society after the Time of Troubles. Therefore, not a simple update was required, but legislative reform, bringing it into line with new living conditions.
Cathedral Code considered public service and public life in the following main areas:

1. interpreted royal power as the power of God's anointed;
2. first introduced the concept of “state crime.” Such
   all acts directed against the king and his family were announced, criticism
   government. The death penalty was imposed for a state crime
   (the theft of the sovereign's property was punished just as severely);
3. provided for punishment for crimes against the church and the patriarch;
4. regulated relations between the population and local authorities through many articles. Disobedience to authorities was punishable, but punishments were also imposed for
   governor and other officials for extortion, bribes and other abuses;
5. attached townspeople to the suburb; ,
6. imposed a tax on “white landowners” - residents of settlements owned by monasteries and private individuals;
7. protected the interests of rich townspeople - merchants, guests (merchants) - by declaring severe punishments for encroaching on their
   goodness, honor and life;
8. announced an “indefinite” search for peasants and their return to their estates.
   Thus, the final step was taken - serfdom became complete. True, the custom was still in force - “there is no extradition from the Don.” It could be
   hide in Siberia, from where neither the government nor the owners had the opportunity to return the fugitive.

A legislative monument that surpassed the Code of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich in completeness and legal elaboration - Code of Laws Russian Empire in 15 volumes - appeared only in 1832 under Nicholas I. And before that, the Code remained a code of Russian laws for almost two centuries.
The monarchy of Alexei Mikhailovich still retained the features of an estate-representative one, but the autocratic power of the tsar increased. After the council of 1654, which decided the issue of reunification with Ukraine, Zemsky Sobors did not meet until the end of Alexei’s reign. The system of government bodies with orders and the Boyar Duma that had developed under the last Rurikovichs remained unshakable. But partial changes took place in it, which contributed to greater centralization and the creation of a complex state administrative apparatus with a huge number of officials - clerks and clerks.
Separated from the Boyar Duma Neighborhood Council And execution chamber, resolving current judicial and administrative cases.
Not wanting to completely depend on the Boyar Duma and the leadership of the orders, Alexei Mikhailovich created a kind of personal office - Order of secret affairs(he stood above everyone else, since he could interfere in the affairs of everyone government agencies).
Localism gradually became a thing of the past. Increasingly, “thin people” were appointed to important government positions.
Thus, in the second half of the 17th century. the formation of basic elements begins absolute monarchy. Absolutism- a form of government when legislative, executive and judicial power is completely concentrated in the hands of the monarch, and the latter relies on a ramified bureaucratic apparatus appointed and controlled exclusively by him. Absolute monarchy presupposes the centralization and regulation of state and local government, the presence of a permanent army and security service, a developed financial system controlled by the monarch.
After the death of Alexei Mikhailovich in 1676, his eldest son became king Fedor- a sickly boy of 14 years old. In fact, his maternal relatives seized power Miloslavsky And sister Sophia, characterized by strong will and energy. The ruling circle under the princess was headed by an intelligent and talented prince V.V. Golitsyn - favorite of the princess. The course towards the rise of the nobility and the creation of conditions for the merger of the nobility and boyars into a single class was continued. A strong blow to the class privileges of the aristocracy, in order to weaken its influence, was dealt in 1682 with the abolition of localism. Now, when making official appointments, the principle of personal merit came to the fore.
With the death of the childless Fyodor Alekseevich in 1682, the question arose about the heir to the throne. Of his two brothers, the weak-minded Ivan could not occupy the throne, but Petru- the son from his second marriage turned 10 years old. At court, a struggle broke out between the relatives of the princes on the side of their mothers.
Behind Ivan stood Miloslavsky led by Princess Sophia, followed by Peter - Naryshkins, who were supported by Patriarch Jokim, who replaced Nikon. At a meeting of the Consecrated Council and the Boyar Duma, Peter was proclaimed tsar. However, on May 15, 1682, the Streltsy rebelled in Moscow, incited by the head of the Streletsky Prikaz, Prince I. A. Khovansky. All prominent supporters of the Naryshkins were killed. At the request of the archers, both princes were placed on the throne, and Princess Sophia became their ruler. With the coming of age of Peter in the summer of 1689, Sophia's regency lost its foundation. Not wanting to voluntarily give up power, Sophia, relying on her protege, the head of the Streletsky Prikaz F. Shaklovity, waited for support from the Streltsy, but her hopes were not justified, the palace coup failed. Sophia was deprived of power and imprisoned in the Novodevichy Convent, her closest supporters were executed or exiled.
In general, at the end of the 17th century. the country was on the verge of decisive changes, already prepared by previous developments. The overdue reforms could be carried out by reducing state pressure on society while simultaneously encouraging private initiative and gradually weakening class unfreedom. Such a path would be a continuation of the reform activities of A.P. Ordin-Nashchokin and V.V. Golitsyn. The other path assumed an even greater tightening of the regime, an extreme degree of concentration of power, strengthening of serfdom and - as a result of an excessive strain of forces - a reformation breakthrough. The traditions of despotic state power in Russia and the character of the reformer who appeared at the end of the century made the second option more likely.
Russian foreign policy. Development of Siberia and the Far East. Russian foreign policy during the 17th century. was aimed at solving the following problems:

1. achieving access to Baltic Sea;
2. ensuring the security of the southern borders from Crimean raids
   khanates;
3. the return of territories seized during the Time of Troubles;
4. development of Siberia and the Far East.

For a long time, the main knot of contradictions was relations between Russia and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. The efforts of the government of Patriarch Filaret in the 20s and early 30s. were aimed at creating an anti-Polish coalition consisting of Sweden, Russia and Turkey. The course for war with Poland, proclaimed by the Zemsky Sobor in 1622, was expressed for 10 years in economic assistance to the opponents of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth - Denmark and Sweden. In June 1634, an agreement was signed between Russia and Poland Polyanovsky world.
In 1648, the liberation struggle of the Ukrainian people against the Polish lords began under the leadership B. Khmelnitsky. The Zemsky Sobor in 1653 decides to reunite Ukraine with Russia. In its turn Pereyaslav Rada in 1654 unanimously supported the entry of Ukraine into Russia. The outbreak of war with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth lasted 13 years, from 1654 to 1667, and ended with the signing Truce of Andrusovo(1667),
the terms of which were fixed in 1686 "The World of War". The Smolensk region, Left Bank Ukraine and Kiev were ceded to Russia. Belarus remained part of Poland. In addition, the agreement provided for joint actions of Russia and Poland against possible Turkish-Crimean aggression.
From 1656 to 1658 it was war between Russia and Sweden. Russian attempt to take control of the coast Gulf of Finland ended unsuccessfully. In 1661 it was signed World of Kardas along which the entire coast remained with Sweden.
In 1677 the Russian-Turkish-Crimean war began, ending in 1681 Bakhchisarai truce, under the terms of which Turkey recognized Russia’s rights to Kyiv (not long before, Turkey managed to recapture Podolia from the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, and it began to lay claim to Right Bank Ukraine). In 1687 and 1689 Prince V.V. Golitsyn led the campaigns to the Crimea, but both ended unsuccessfully.
Thus, Russia was never able to gain access to the seas, and in this regard its foreign policy tasks remained the same. The Crimean campaigns did not bring Russia any major military successes or territorial transformations. However, the main task "Holy League"(Austria, Poland, Russia - 1684) was fulfilled - Russian troops blocked the forces of the Crimean Khan, who was unable to provide assistance to the Turkish troops, who were defeated by the Austrians and Venetians. In addition, the inclusion of Russia for the first time in the European military alliance significantly increased its international prestige.
Among the successes of Russian foreign policy are development of Siberia and the Far East. In the 16th century Russian people conquered Western Siberia, and by the middle of the 16th century. conquered a significant part Eastern Siberia. The gigantic space from the Yenisei to the Sea of ​​Okhotsk was “traversed” by the Cossack pioneers in 20 years.
From the interfluve of the Ob and Yenisei, Russian explorers moved southeast to the Baikal region, to the Amur and southern Far Eastern lands, as well as to the east and northeast to the Lena River basin - to Yakutia, Chukotka and Kamchatka.
Between the Ob, Yenisei and Lower Tunguska in those days they lived Nenets(which the Russians called Samoyeds), Khanty (Ostyaks), Mansi (Voguls) And Evenks (Tungus). These peoples began to pay tribute to Russia.
Since 1632, Russia began to pay yasak Yakutia, conquered with the help of arquebuses and cannons. Russian Cossacks who founded Yakutsk, became the new masters of the region.
Buryat tribes became part of Russia in the early 50s. XVII century The main city of the Baikal region, where the Buryat tribute was brought, was built in 1652. Irkutsk The capital of all Russian possessions in Western and Eastern Siberia remained Tobolsk
The establishment of Russians in the middle of the century on the Lena River and in the Baikal region opened up the possibility of movement of pioneers and settlers further to the east, northeast and southeast (expeditions S. I. Dezhneva to Chukotka, E. P. Khabarova in the Amur region). The Amur region became part of Russia, which displeased the rulers of Manchuria. Treaty of Nerchinsk 1689 established the border between the possessions of China and Russia along the Amur and its tributaries.
Moscow established its power in Siberia quite firmly. Siberia, according to the historian A. A. Zimin, was a kind of valve into which the forces of an unreconciled and unconquered people went. Not only merchants and service people flocked here, but also runaway slaves, peasants, and townspeople. There were no landowners or serfdom here. Tax oppression in Siberia was milder than in the center of Russia.
Russian settlers received bread, gunpowder, lead and other aid from the governors appointed by the tsar and maintained order. The settlers paid taxes to the treasury, and the indigenous people paid a fur tribute. And it was not in vain that Moscow encouraged the work of explorers and industrialists: in the 17th century. income from Siberian furs accounted for a quarter of all government revenues.
Church reform. The Russian Orthodox Church occupies a significant place in the history of the Russian state. Orthodoxy determined the ethnic self-awareness of the Russian people during the struggle against the Mongol-Tatar yoke, which, together with the all-Russian church organization and along with socio-economic factors, contributed to the political unification of the lands and the creation of a single Moscow state.
In the XVI-XVII centuries. the church, relying on the state, suppressed numerous heresies that penetrated into the upper layers of the administrative apparatus and had a fairly broad social base. IN historical science this struggle was seen as the suppression of free thought, currents of social thought similar to the Western Reformation. Church history interprets the defeat of heresies as a defense of faith, the Orthodox identity of the Russian people and Russian statehood, and the scope and cruelty of the fight against heresies in Russia exceeded the activities of the Inquisition or Protestant churches.
The church and monasteries had significant economic power, a developed and efficient economy, and were cultural centers. Monasteries were often built in strategically important places and were of great importance in the defense of the country. The church was able to exhibit up to 20 thousand. warriors These circumstances created the material basis for the authority of the church (a kind of state within the state), which, nevertheless, was not used in opposition to secular power.
The consecrated cathedral, as a body of church government, took an active part in the work of Zemsky Sobors. During the Time of Troubles, the patriarchate (established in 1589), despite some hesitations, played a big role in the fight against impostors and the Polish-Swedish intervention (the tragic fate of Patriarch Hermogenes, the death of monks while defending Orthodox shrines, material support for the militia, etc. ). Patriarch Filaret actually ruled Russia, being a co-ruler of Tsar Mikhail Romanovich, strengthening the autocracy and the new dynasty, on the one hand, and the role of the church, on the other.
In the middle of the 17th century. a reorientation begins in the relationship between church and state. Researchers assess its causes differently. In historical literature, the prevailing point of view is that the process of formation of absolutism inevitably led to the deprivation of the church of its feudal privileges and subordination to the state. The reason for this was the attempt of Patriarch Nikon to place spiritual power above secular power. Church historians deny this position of the patriarch, considering Nikon a consistent ideologist "symphonies of power". They see the initiative in abandoning this theory in the activities of the tsarist administration and the influence of Protestant ideas.
An important fact of Russian history of the 17th century. was church schism, resulting from church reform Patriarch Nikon.
There are two main traditions in understanding schism in literature. Some scientists - A. P. Shchapov, N. A. Aristov, V. B. Andreev, N. I. Kostomarov - are inclined to see in him socio-political movement in religious form.
Other researchers see the schism and Old Believers primarily as religious-church phenomenon. Among historians, such an understanding of the schism is typical for S. M. Solovyov, V. O. Klyuchevsky, E. E. Golubinsky, A. V. Kartashev, among Russian thinkers - for V. S. Solovyov, V. V. Rozanov, N. A. Berdyaev, Archpriest Georgy Florovsky. Modern researchers A.P. Bogdanov, V.I. Buganov, S.V. Bushuev do not deny socio-political aspirations, but consider them not the main and determining ones, but subordinate to the topic of schism.
Reasons for carrying out church reform:
- church reform was dictated by the need to strengthen discipline, order, and moral principles of the clergy;
- the introduction of identical church rituals throughout the Orthodox world was required;
- the spread of printing opened up the possibility of unifying church books.
At the end of the 40s. XVII century In Moscow, a circle of zealots of ancient piety was formed. It included prominent church figures: the royal confessor Stefan Vonifatiev, the rector of the Kazan Cathedral on Red Square John, the royal bed guard F. Rtishchev, outstanding church leaders Nikon and Avvakum from Nizhny Novgorod, and others.
Son of a Mordovian peasant Nikon(in the world Nikita Minov) made a rapid career. Having taken monastic vows on the Solovetsky Islands, Nikon soon became the abbot (head) of the Kozheozersky monastery (Kargopol region). Nikon had an acquaintance and friendship with Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, whose support he enjoyed for a long time. Nikon becomes archimandrite of the Moscow Novospassky Monastery - the family tomb of the Romanovs. After a short stay as Metropolitan of Novgorod (just during the Novgorod uprising of 1650), Nikon was elected Moscow Patriarch in 1652.
It was Patriarch Nikon who began the reform to unify rituals and establish uniformity in church services. Greek rules and rituals were taken as a model.
The most significant of the innovations adopted by Patriarch Nikon and the church council in 1654 were the replacement of baptism with two fingers with three fingers, pronouncing the praise to God “Hallelujah” not twice, but three times, and moving around the lectern in the church not in the direction of the Sun, but against it.
Then the patriarch attacked the icon painters who began to use Western European painting techniques. In addition, following the example of the Eastern clergy, churches began to read sermons of their own composition. Here the tone was set by the patriarch himself. Russian handwritten and printed liturgical books were ordered to be taken to Moscow for viewing. If discrepancies with the Greek ones were found, the books were destroyed, replaced by printing and sending out new ones. And although all the changes were purely external and did not affect the Orthodox doctrine, they were perceived as an attack on the faith itself, because they violated traditions (the faith of the fathers and their ancestors).
Nikon fought against innovations, but it was his reforms that were perceived by part of the Moscow people as innovations that encroached on faith. The church split into Nikonians(the church hierarchy and most of the believers who are accustomed to obey) and Old Believers.
Archpriest becomes an active opponent of Nikon and one of the founders of the Old Believer movement Habakkuk- one of the most prominent personalities in Russian history. A man of enormous spiritual strength, which fully manifested itself during his persecution, from childhood he was accustomed to asceticism and mortification of the flesh. He considered aversion from the world and the desire for holiness to be so natural for a person that he could not get along in any parish because of his tireless pursuit of worldly pleasures and deviations from the customs of the church. Many considered him a saint and miracle worker. He participated with Nikon in correcting liturgical books, but was soon removed due to ignorance of the Greek language.
Adherents of the old faith - the Old Believers - saved and hid the “wrong” liturgical books. Secular and spiritual authorities persecuted them. From persecution, zealots of the old faith fled to the forests, united into communities, and founded monasteries in the wilderness. The Solovetsky Monastery, which did not recognize Nikonianism, was under siege from 1668 to 1676, until the governor Meshcheryakov took it and hanged all the rebels (out of 600 people, 50 remained alive).
Leaders of the Old Believers, archpriests Habakkuk and Daniel They wrote petitions to the Tsar, but, seeing that Alexei did not defend the “old times,” they announced the imminent arrival of the end of the world, because the Antichrist had appeared in Russia. The king and the patriarch are “his two horns.” Only the martyrs - the defenders of the old faith - will be saved. The preaching of “purification by fire” was born. The schismatics locked themselves in churches and burned themselves alive.
The Old Believers did not disagree with the Orthodox Church on any point dogma(the main tenet of the doctrine), but only in some rituals that Nikon abolished, therefore they were not heretics, but only schismatics.
The schism united a variety of social forces that advocated preserving the integrity of the traditions of Russian culture. There were princes and boyars, such as noblewoman F.P. Morozova and princess E.P. Urusova, monks and white clergy who refused to perform the new rituals. But there were especially many ordinary people: townspeople, archers, peasants, who saw in the preservation of old rituals a way of fighting for the ancient folk ideals of “pride” and “freedom”. The most radical step of the Old Believers was the decision taken in 1674 to stop praying for the health of the Tsar. This meant a complete break between the Old Believers and the existing society, the beginning of the struggle to preserve the ideal of “truth” within their communities.
Holy Cathedral 1666-1667 He cursed the schismatics for their disobedience. The zealots of the old faith ceased to recognize the church that excommunicated them. The split has not been overcome to this day.
The leaders of the Old Believers, Avvakum and his associates, were exiled to Pustoozersk, in the lower reaches of Pechora, and spent 14 years in an earthen prison, after which they were burned alive. Since then, Old Believers often subjected themselves to “fiery baptism” - self-immolation.
The fate of the main enemy of the Old Believers, Patriarch Nikon, was also tragic. Having achieved the title of “great sovereign,” His Holiness the Patriarch clearly overestimated his strength. In 1658, he defiantly left the capital, declaring that he did not want to be a patriarch in Moscow, but would remain the patriarch of Rus'.
In 1666, a church council with the participation of the Patriarchs of Alexandria and Antioch, who had powers from two other Orthodox patriarchs - Constantinople and Jerusalem, removed Nikon from the post of patriarch. The place of his exile was the famous Ferapontov Monastery near Vologda. After the death of Alexei Mikhailovich, Nikon returned from exile and died (1681) near Yaroslavl. He is buried in the Resurrection New Jerusalem Monastery near Moscow (Istra).
Thus, church reform and schism were a major social and spiritual revolution, which not only reflected trends towards centralization and a certain unification of church life, but also entailed significant sociocultural consequences. It stirred the consciousness of millions of people, forcing them to doubt the legitimacy of the existing world order, and created a split between the official secular and spiritual authorities and a significant part of society. Having violated some traditional foundations of spiritual life, the schism gave impetus to social thought and prepared the way for future transformations.
In addition, the church schism, which weakened the church in the 15th century, served as a prerequisite for the subsequent subordination of the church to state power, turning it into an ideological appendage of absolutism.

Mercantilism- the economic policy of early capitalism (the era of the so-called primitive accumulation of capital), expressed in the active intervention of the state in economic life. It consists of protectionism, encouraging the development of domestic industry, especially manufacturing, and supporting the expansion of commercial capital.

Morozov Boris Ivanovich(1590-1661) - boyar, statesman, in the middle of the 17th century. headed the Russian government.

"Symphony of Power" - Byzantine-Orthodox theory, which assumed a dual unity of independently existing secular and ecclesiastical authorities, but jointly defending Orthodox values.

Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov became the Russian Tsar at a difficult time (Diagram 82). The Troubles led Russia to complete economic collapse. Political stability was not immediately established; the system of government in the center and locally was destroyed. The main tasks of the young king were to achieve reconciliation in the country, overcome economic devastation and streamline the management system. The first six years of his reign, Mikhail ruled, relying on the Boyar Duma and Zemsky Councils. The latter actually did not stop working from 1613 to 1619. In 1619, the Tsar’s father Fyodor Nikitich (in monasticism Filaret) Romanov returned from Polish captivity. Filaret, who accepted the patriarchal rank, actually ruled the country until his death in 1633. In 1645, Mikhail Romanov also died. His son Alexei Mikhailovich became the Russian Tsar (diagram 83).

By the middle of the century, economic devastation had been overcome. Economic development Russia in the 17th century characterized by a number of new phenomena in economic life (Diagram 84). The craft gradually developed into small-scale production. More and more products were produced not to order, but for the market. Economic specialization of individual regions took place. In Tula and Kashira, for example, metal products were produced. The Volga region specialized in leather processing. Novgorod and Pskov were centers of flax production. The best jewelry was created in Novgorod, Tikhvin and Moscow. In the same era, centers of artistic crafts began to emerge (Khokhloma, Palekh, etc.).

The development of commodity production led to the emergence of manufactories. They were divided into state-owned ones, i.e. state-owned (for example, the Armory Chamber), and privately owned. The latter arose mainly in metallurgy. Such enterprises were located in Tula, Kashira and the Urals.

Scheme 82

The growth of productive forces contributed to the development of trade and the emergence of an all-Russian market. Two large all-Russian fairs arose: Makaryevskaya on the Volga and Irbitskaya in the Urals.

In the 17th century final legal registration took place in Russia serfdom. By this term, historians understand the most severe form of peasant dependence on the landowner, whose power extended to the person, labor and property of the peasants belonging to him. The forced attachment of peasants to the land was practiced in a number of European countries in the Middle Ages. However, in Western Europe Serfdom was relatively short-lived and did not exist everywhere. In Russia it was finally established at the turn of the 17th century, existed in its most severe form and was abolished only in 1861.

Scheme 83

How can we explain this phenomenon in Russian history? In the literature, one of the reasons for the enslavement of peasants is the low productivity of peasant farms. Historians believe that other reasons for the development of serfdom were harsh natural and climatic conditions and the economic dependence of peasants on feudal lords. The position of the Russian peasantry was also influenced by the peculiarities of the political development of Russian statehood. The basis of the armed forces of Russia in the 17th century. constituted the service class of landowners - landowners. Constantly arising expenses for maintaining the country's defense capability required strengthening this class and providing it with free labor (Scheme 85).

Scheme 84

The stages of legal registration of serfdom are easy to trace. In 1581, Ivan the Terrible introduced the “Reserved Summers”, until the abolition of which peasants were forbidden to leave their owners. In reality, this meant that the peasants were deprived of the ancient right to move to another owner on St. George’s Day, although there was probably no formal law to abolish it. In continuation of the policy of enslaving the peasants, the government of Boris Godunov adopted a decree in 1597 on a five-year search for fugitive peasants. By decrees of Tsar Mikhail Fedorovich of 1637 and 1641, state investigation was increased to 9 and 15 years, respectively. The date of final registration of serfdom is considered to be 1649. The Council Code of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich established an indefinite search for fugitive peasants.

Scheme 85

In historical literature, there are two main concepts of enslavement of the Russian peasantry. According to the concept of "mandatory" enslavement, serfdom was introduced at the initiative of the state authorities to maintain the country's defense capability and ensure the service class. This point of view was shared by historians N.M. Karamzin, S.M. Soloviev, N.I. Kostomarov, S.B. Veselovsky and B.D. Grekov, as well as modern historian R.G Skrynnikov. In the works of V.O. Klyuchevsky, M.P. Pogodin and M.A. Dyakonov defends the “undecided” concept, according to which serfdom was a consequence of the real living conditions of the country, only legally formalized by the state (Diagram 86).

In 1649, the Council Code was adopted - a code of domestic feudal law that regulated relations in the main spheres of social life (Diagram 87). In July 1648, the Zemsky Sobor considered the petition of servicemen and merchants for the adoption of a new code of laws. To develop it, a special commission was created headed by boyar N.I. Odoevsky. Already in the fall of the same year, the draft Code was presented to the tsar. At the beginning of 1649, the Code was approved by the Zemsky Sobor. Soon it was published in a circulation of 1,200 copies. The Code is divided into chapters, and chapters into articles. In total, the Council Code contains 25 chapters and 967 articles.

The code of laws begins with the chapter “On blasphemers and church rebels,” which prescribes that any blasphemy, heresy, or rebellion against church authorities should be punished by burning at the stake. The next two chapters regulate the status of the king. The very title of one of them is indicative: “On the sovereign’s honor and how to protect his sovereign’s health.” The Council Code prescribes cruel punishments not only for rebellion against the Tsar or insulting the head of state, but even for fights and riots in the Tsar’s court. Thus, the legislative consolidation of the absolute monarchy took place.

Scheme 86

Scheme 87

The Council Code formalizes the social structure of society, since it regulates the rights and responsibilities of all classes. The most important chapter was Chapter 11, “The Court of Peasants.” It was in it that the indefinite search for fugitive peasants was indicated, which finally consolidated serfdom. According to the Council Code, city residents were assigned to their place of residence and "tax", i.e. carrying out government duties. A significant part of the Code is devoted to the procedure of legal proceedings and criminal law. Laws of the 17th century look too harsh. Legal historians have counted 60 crimes for which the death penalty is provided for in the Council Code. The Code also regulates the procedure for military service, travel to other states, customs policy, etc.

Political development of Russia in the 17th century. characterized by the evolution of the state system: from estate-representative monarchy to absolutism. A special place in the system of class-representative monarchy was occupied by Zemsky Sobors (Diagram 88). The Zemsky Sobor included the highest clergy (the “consecrated cathedral”), the Boyar Duma and the elected part (the “curia”). The elected delegates of the Council represented the Moscow nobles, the administration of the orders, the district nobility, the top of the "tyaglovy" settlements of the Moscow suburb, as well as the Cossacks and Streltsy ("service people according to the apparatus"). The black-nosed peasants were represented only once - at the Zemsky Sobor in 1613.

Scheme 88

As already indicated, the first Zemsky Sobor in the history of Russia was convened by Ivan IV in 1549 (Cathedral of Reconciliation) (Diagram 89). Cathedrals of the 16th century resolved issues about the continuation of the Livonian War and the election of a king. A special role in Russian history was played by the Council of 1613, which elected Mikhail Romanov to the throne. In the first years of the reign of the young tsar, the Zemsky Sobors worked almost continuously and helped Michael in governing the state. After the return of Mikhail Fedorovich Filaret Romanov's father from Polish captivity, the activities of the Councils became less active. Basically they resolved issues of war and peace. In 1649, the Zemsky Sobor adopted the Council Code. The last Zemsky Sobor, which worked in 1653, resolved the issue of reunification of Ukraine with Russia. Subsequently, zemstvo activity fades away. In the 1660-1680s. Numerous class commissions were assembled. All of them were predominantly boyars. The end of the work of the Zemsky Sobors actually meant the completion of the transition from an estate-representative monarchy to absolutism.

Scheme 89

The Boyar Duma retained a significant role in the system of state power and administration bodies. However, in the second half of the 17th century. its value falls. The so-called Near Duma, consisting of persons especially devoted to the tsar, stands out from the composition of the Duma.

High development in the 17th century. reaches the order control system (diagram 90). Standing orders dealt with individual sectors in the field government controlled within the country or were in charge of individual territories. The defense of the country and the affairs of the service class were in charge of the discharge, streltsy, Pushkar, foreign and Reitar orders. The local order formalized land plots and conducted judicial investigations in land matters. The ambassadorial order carried out the foreign policy of the state. Along with permanent orders, temporary orders were also created. One of them was the order of secret affairs, led personally by Alexei Mikhailovich. The order was responsible for supervising the activities of higher government institutions and officials.

The main administrative-territorial unit of the state was the county. Local government system in the 17th century. was built not on the basis of elected bodies, but on the power of governors appointed from the center. Zemstvo and provincial elders were subordinate to them.

Social structure of Russian society in the 17th century. was deeply classed (diagram 91). The term "estate" means a social group that has rights and obligations enshrined in custom or law and inherited. The privileged class were secular and spiritual feudal lords. Secular feudal lords were divided into ranks. In the 17th century this concept reflected not so much official position as belonging to a certain group of the feudal class. Its top were the Duma ranks: boyars, okolnichy, there were Moscow ranks - officials, solicitors, Moscow nobles. They were followed by the lower categories of the privileged class - city officials. These included provincial nobles, who were called "children of the boyars."

The majority of the dependent population were peasants. Personally, free members of the community were called black-growing peasants. The rest of the peasants were either privately owned, i.e. belonging to landowners, or palace, or appanage, belonging royal family. Serfs were in the position of slaves. Residents of cities - artisans and merchants - were assigned to their duties. The richest merchants were called "guests". The dependent classes also included “service people according to the instrument”: archers, gunners and Cossacks.

Scheme 90

Agriculture

The events of the Time of Troubles led to the ruin and devastation of a large part of Russia, especially its central regions. Since the 20s. XVII century the process of economic restoration began. restored by the 40s. XVII century

Agriculture remained the main sector of the Russian economy, where the three-field farming system continued to dominate. The main agricultural crops were rye and oats. Wheat, barley, millet, buckwheat, peas, and industrial crops such as flax and hemp were also grown. Gardening and horticulture developed. The main tools of labor remained the plow, harrow, sickle, and scythe; the plow was slowly introduced.

Craft and industry

In the 17th century The share of handicraft production in the country's economy increased. The division of labor deepened. The largest centers of handicraft production were Moscow, Ustyug Veliky, Yaroslavl, Novgorod, Tula and others. Handicraft centers in the 17th century. There were also some villages. In the development of handicraft production in the 17th century. there is a clear tendency to transform it into small-scale production. The development of small-scale crafts and the growth of commodity specialization prepared the ground for the emergence manufactory

Cathedral Code of 1649

On September 1, 1648, the Zemsky Sobor began its work, and in January 1649 it adopted the Council Code.

The Council Code was serf-based in its content and reflected the victory of the nobility.

The Council Code completed the long process of the formation of serfdom, which went through a number of stages. The adoption of the Council Code, directed against the working people of the city and countryside, intensified the class struggle. In 1650, uprisings of citizens broke out in Pskov and Novgorod. The state needed funds to maintain the state apparatus and troops; in 1654, the government began minting copper coins instead of silver coins at the same price. This led to rising prices. Price gouging led to famine. The desperate townspeople of Moscow rebelled in 1662 (Copper Riot). The uprising was brutally suppressed, but copper money was no longer minted.

Peasant war led by Stepan Razin

The uprising of 1662 became one of the harbingers of the impending peasant war, led by Ataman S.T. Razin. The norms of the Council Code of 1649 sharply aggravated class antagonism in the village. The development of commodity-money relations led to increased feudal exploitation, which was expressed in the growth in the black soil regions of corvée and monetary dues in places where the land was infertile. The deterioration of the situation of peasants in the fertile lands of the Volga region, where land ownership of the Morozov, Mstislavsky, and Cherkasy boyars was growing rapidly, was felt with particular acuteness. The specificity of the Volga region was that there were lands nearby where the population had not yet experienced the full weight of feudal oppression. This is what attracted the Trans-Volga steppes and the Don to runaway slaves, peasants, and townspeople. The non-Russian population - Mordovians, Chuvash, Tatars, Bashkirs were under double oppression - feudal and national. All this created the preconditions for the development of a new peasant war in this area.

The driving forces of the peasant war were peasants, Cossacks, serfs, townspeople, archers, and non-Russian peoples of the Volga region. Razin’s “charming (from the word “to seduce”) letters” contained a call for a campaign against the boyars, nobles, and merchants. They were characterized by faith in a good king. Objectively, the demands of the rebel peasants boiled down to the creation of conditions in which peasant farming could develop as the main unit of agricultural production.

The harbinger of the peasant war was the campaign of Vasily Usa from the Don to Tula (May 1666). During its advance, the Cossack detachment was replenished with peasants who destroyed estates. The uprising covered the territories of Tula, Dedilovsky and other districts. The government urgently sent the noble militia against the rebels. The rebels retreated to the Don.

In 1667-1668. Cossack bastards, alien slaves and peasants made a campaign in Persia. It was called the “zipun trek.” The Don Golytba had made such attacks before, but this campaign amazes with its scope, thoroughness of preparation, duration and enormous success.

During the “campaign for zipuns,” the differences devastated not only the western and southern coasts of the Caspian Sea, defeated the Persian army and navy, but also opposed government troops. They defeated a detachment of Astrakhan archers, destroyed a caravan of ships belonging to the Tsar, the Patriarch, and the merchant Shorin. Thus, already in this campaign, features of social antagonism appeared, which led to the formation of the core of the future rebel army.

In the winter of 1669-1670. upon returning from the Caspian Sea to the Don, Razin is preparing for a second campaign, this time against the boyars, nobles, merchants, on a campaign for all the “rabble,” “for all the enslaved and disgraced.”

The campaign began in the spring of 1670. Vasily Us joined Razin with his detachment. Razin's army consisted of golutvenny Cossacks, runaway slaves and peasants, archers. The main goal of the campaign was to capture Moscow. The main route is the Volga. To carry out the campaign against Moscow, it was necessary to provide the rear - to take the government fortresses of Tsaritsyn and Astrakhan. During April-July the differences took hold of these cities. The courtyards of the boyars, nobles, and clerks were destroyed, and the archives of the voivod's court were burned. Cossack administration was introduced in cities.

Leaving a detachment led by Usa and Sheludyak in Astrakhan, Razin’s rebel detachments took Saransk and Penza. A campaign against Nizhny Novgorod was being prepared. The actions of peasant detachments turned the Volga region and surrounding areas into a hotbed of the anti-feudal movement. The movement spread to the Russian North (there were differences in Solovki), to Ukraine, where a detachment of Frol Razin was sent.

Only by exerting all its forces, by sending numerous regiments of government troops, did tsarism by the spring of 1671. was able to drown the peasant movement in the Volga region in blood. In April of the same year, Razin was defeated and was handed over to the government by the homely Cossacks. On June 6, 1671, Razin was executed in Moscow. But Razin's execution did not mean the end of the movement. Only in November 1671 government troops captured Astrakhan. In 1673-1675. Rebel detachments were still active on the Don, near Kozlov and Tambov.

The defeat of the peasant war led by Stepan Razin was predetermined by a number of reasons. The main one was that the peasant war was of a tsarist nature. The peasants believed in the “good king”, because due to their position they could not see the true reason for their

oppression and develop an ideology that would unite all oppressed sections of the population and raise their to fight the existing feudal system. Other reasons for the defeat were spontaneity and locality, weak weapons and poor organization of the rebels.

c) Domestic policy

Transition to absolutism

In the second half of the 17th century. in Russia there is a developing trend of transition from an estate-representative monarchy to an absolute monarchy. The power of the king is strengthening in the country. This was expressed both in the appearance of the word “autocrat” in the royal title, and in the change in the social composition of the Boyar Duma towards strengthening the representation of the nobility there. In 1678-1679 in the Duma there were 42 boyars, 27 okolnichys, 19 Duma nobles and 9 Duma clerks. It is characteristic that the number of Duma clerks began to include people from the “trading people”, i.e. merchants.

In 1682, localism was abolished (the principle of holding a public office depending on the nobility of the family and the official position of the ancestors). To strengthen the power of the parish, centralize and overcome fragmentation in management, the Order of the Great Sovereign for Secret Affairs was formed in 1654, to whose jurisdiction a number of important state affairs were transferred from the Boyar Duma. The tendency towards establishing the autocratic power of the tsar was also manifested in the victory of Alexei Mikhailovich over Patriarch Nikon, who sought to actively intervene in the management of state affairs.

The tendency towards strengthening autocratic power was also manifested in a number of other events. Beginning in 1653, the convening of Zemsky Sobors practically ceased. The orders were merged and reorganized, subordinating them to one person. For example, the king’s father-in-law I.D. Miloslavsky supervised the work of five orders, and the Ambassadorial Order was subordinate to 9 orders that were in charge of the annexed territories. The government tried to reorganize local government as well. Russia was divided into 250 districts, headed by governors. In the second half of the 17th century. some counties began to be united under the authority of one governor into so-called categories: Ryazan, Ukrainian, Novgorod, etc. Since 1613, 33 Russian cities received voivodeship administration. Administrative, judicial and military power, supervision over the collection of taxes and duties were concentrated in the hands of the governors appointed by the government.

In the 17th century The question of reforming the Russian armed forces became acute. The combat effectiveness of the Streltsy army was falling. The Sagittarius did not receive a salary from the state for many years. The source of life for them and their families was trade and craft activities, which were allowed to them back in the 16th century. Military service distracted the archers from their activities. In addition, the archers paid state taxes on their trades and trades, which brought them closer in interests to the townspeople population of the cities. Regimental commanders often used archers to work on their farms. All this made military service a burdensome task for the archers.

The noble militia served on the same basis as in the 16th century. But if in the 16th and first half of the 17th centuries. military service nevertheless was an incentive for the nobility, then by the end of the 17th century. it has become quite burdensome for most. They avoided service in every possible way. In addition, the nobles were poorly trained in the conduct of military operations. One of his contemporaries described the military training of the nobles as follows: “they don’t have training for battle and don’t know any formation.”

Already in the first half of the century, in connection with this, the formation of regiments of a new system began - Reitar and Dragoon regiments. They were formed on the basis of the forced recruitment of “dacha people”, when from 100 households one person was taken for lifelong service in these regiments. By the end of the XVI century. regiments of the new system began to play a significant role in the Russian armed forces.

1. Russian foreign policy in the 16th century–XVII centuries