The Russian Empire in the second half of the 19th – early 20th centuries. Russian Empire in the second half of the 18th century Economic policy of Catherine II

Plan
Introduction
1. History
2 Territory
2.1 Territorial composition and provinces

3 Population
3.1 Population composition

4 Society
4.1 Estates
4.1.1 Nobles
4.1.2 Clergy
4.1.3 Merchants
4.1.4 Cossacks
4.1.5 Foreigners
4.1.6 Peasants
4.1.6.1 Serfdom
4.1.6.2 Post-reform Russian Empire (1861-1917)

4.2 Largest cities of the Russian Empire

5 Emperors and authorities
5.1 Emperors and Autocrats All-Russian
5.2 Governing Senate
5.3 Committee of Ministers and Council of Ministers
5.4 Council of State
5.5 State Duma
5.6 Governors

6 Local management
7 Bureaucracy
8 Legal system
9 Economics
9.1 Agriculture
9.2 Railways
9.3 Industrial development
9.4 Economy of the Russian Empire in the 18th century.
9.5 Economy of the Russian Empire in the 20th century

10 Armed forces
10.1 Army
10.2 Guard
10.3 Irregular forces
10.4 Navy
10.5 Air Force
10.6 State militia

11 Religion
11.1 Russian Orthodox Church
11.2 “Infidel and heterodox” confessions

12 Finance
12.1 Reforms of Peter I
12.2 Second half of the 18th century - first half of the 19th century
12.3 Reforms of Alexander II
12.4 Late 19th - early 20th centuries
12.5 Pre-war state of finances
12.6 Finance in the First World War
12.7 Gold reserve

13 Territorial expansion
13.1 Geopolitical competition with Sweden. Accession of Finland
13.2 Sections of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Kingdom of Poland
13.3 Accession of Georgia
13.4 Russian-Turkish wars. Annexation of Crimea, Novorossiya, Moldova and Wallachia

14 Culture

14.2 Fine arts
14.3 Music
14.4 Cinematography

15 State symbols and awards
15.1 State symbols
15.2 State awards

16 Imperial Court
16.1 General organization
16.2 Yard Suppliers
16.3 Court ceremonies
16.4 Military retinue
16.5 Security

17 High nobility
17.1 Barons
17.2 Princes
17.3 Graphs
17.4 Imperial family

Bibliography

Introduction

The Russian Empire (Russian doref. Rossiyskaya Imperiya; also the All-Russian Empire, the Russian State or Russia) is a state that existed from 1721 until the February Revolution and the proclamation of the republic in 1917.

The Empire was proclaimed following the Great Northern War by Russian Tsar Peter I the Great.

The capital of the Russian Empire was first St. Petersburg in 1721-1728, then Moscow in 1728-1730, then St. Petersburg again in 1730-1917 (in 1914 the city was renamed Petrograd).

The Russian Empire was the third largest state ever formed (after the Mongol and British empires) - stretching to the Arctic Ocean in the north and the Black Sea in the south, to the Baltic Sea in the west and the Pacific Ocean in the east. The head of the empire, the All-Russian Emperor, had unlimited, absolute power until 1905.

On September 1 (14), 1917, the Provisional Government of Russia proclaimed the country a republic (although in fact Russia was a republic after the February Revolution). However, the legislative body of the empire, the State Duma, was dissolved only on October 6 (19) of the same year.

1. History

The foundations of the Russian Empire were laid by the Russian Tsar Peter I (Peter I the Great), who, during his reforms (1695-1725), transformed the regime of the estate-representative monarchy of Muscovite Rus' into an absolute monarchy modeled on a number of Western European countries (Prussia, Holland, Sweden). The regime of absolutism was first recorded in the Military Regulations ( “His Majesty is an autocratic monarch who should not give an answer to anyone in the world in his affairs”).

During the reforms, the main centers of power that could resist the power of the tsar (the Boyar Duma and the Patriarchate) were destroyed, the nobles, organized in accordance with the Table of Ranks, became the main support of the monarchy, and the church was transformed from a patriarchal structure to a synodal one. Thanks to the activities of Peter I, a regular army and navy were founded, Russia's borders were pushed west during the Northern War, access to the Baltic Sea was won, and St. Petersburg was founded. At the same time, an attempt to gain access to the Black Sea (Prut Campaign (1711), Persian Campaign (1722-1723)) was unsuccessful due to opposition from the Ottoman Empire.

At the end of the Northern War, Peter I on October 22 (November 2), 1721, declared himself emperor and Russia an empire. In the European tradition, an empire was considered the only powerful power on a pan-European scale; Thus, the new title of Russian tsars signified in the eyes of the West the sharply increased foreign policy weight of Russia. Some states that also claimed dominance in Europe did not immediately recognize Russia’s new status, most recently Poland (1764), which laid claim to part of the former lands of Kievan Rus.

In November 1724, Peter I personally took part in the rescue of a stranded ship, after which he became seriously ill. After his death in February 1725, the era of palace coups began in Russia; in the absence of any representative bodies, their role increasingly began to be played by the elite noble regiments of the Russian Imperial Guard, at their discretion, overthrowing emperors who had become objectionable. In 1762, during another coup, Catherine II (Catherine II the Great), née Sophia Frederica Augusta, Princess of Anhalt-Zerbst, came to power. She overthrows her own husband, Peter III, and is crowned under the name Catherine.

During her reign, Russia makes another breakthrough in external expansion, having conquered Crimea during the Russian-Turkish wars, and having participated in the partitions of Poland, the active colonization of New Russia begins. During the partitions of Poland, Russia receives in the newly annexed territories, in addition to Belarusians, Ukrainians and Poles, also a significant number of Jews of German origin (Ashkenazim), whose movements are limited to the Pale of Settlement.

The foundations are being laid for Russian expansion in Transcaucasia, where Russian interests collided with the interests of Persia and Turkey. In 1783, the Treaty of Georgievsk was signed, which began the process of annexing the fragmented Georgian principalities, which continued under subsequent emperors.

Catherine II was strongly influenced by European ideas of enlightened absolutism, and personally corresponded with French philosophers (Voltaire, Diderot). However, at the same time, she believed that the enormous size of Russia required the maintenance of a powerful state apparatus based on an autocratic monarchy.

In domestic politics, serfdom reaches its apogee: the nobility is exempted from compulsory service by a charter granted to the nobility, while the peasantry remains attached to the land. This contradiction becomes one of the reasons for Pugachev’s uprising.

After the death of Catherine II in 1796, her son, Paul I, who hated his mother and, after his coronation, immediately canceled a number of her innovations, became the new emperor. Paul sets the nobility against himself by trying to impose strict discipline in the guard, strengthening regulation in public life, and the Manifesto on the three-day corvee. In addition to his other steps, Paul I became Master of the Order of Malta, and prepared a project for a proposed campaign in India. On March 12, 1801, the disgruntled nobility assassinates the emperor in a new coup.

During the reign of Alexander I (Alexander I the Blessed), 1801-1825, during the Russian-Swedish war of 1808-1809, Russia finally destroyed the Swedish great power by annexing Finland. During the Patriotic War of 1812, a victory was won over the French aggressors, which made possible the collapse of Napoleon's powerful empire in Europe. The Congress of Vienna of 1814-1815 established a new world order in Europe, calling into question the gains of the French Revolution, and significantly strengthening the role of Russia. At the same time, during the foreign campaign of the Russian army in 1813-1814 ( see War of the Sixth Coalition) many Russian officers became familiar with the structure of life in Europe, and ideas of reforms based on the European model were spreading among some of the officers: the transition to a constitutional monarchy, the abolition of serfdom.

Russian expansion in Transcaucasia continues, but the annexed states find themselves cut off from Russia by the hostile North Caucasus. Strategic interests also require further expansion in the North Caucasus; in 1817, the protracted Caucasian War began.

In 1803-1811, the tsar considered projects for significant liberalization of public administration (reforms of M. M. Speransky), and in 1801 he abolished the distribution of state-owned peasants to those close to him. In 1803, the Decree on free cultivators was adopted, and in 1818, projects for the abolition of serfdom were considered. In 1802, the system of collegiums was replaced by a system of ministries ( see Manifesto on the establishment of ministries).

In 1810-1817, the organization of military settlements began under the leadership of Arakcheev (they were destroyed only in 1857). In 1819-1820, mass riots against military settlements began, and in 1820, unrest began in the army. After the death of Alexander in 1825, the Decembrist Revolt broke out. The new Emperor Nicholas I undertakes a policy of centralization; after the suppression of the Polish uprising of 1830, he takes steps to destroy Polish autonomy. Increased Russian pressure on the Ottoman Empire leads to the Crimean War, which was lost due to accumulated technical backwardness. During the war, the Anglo-French fleet attacks Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky (Petropavlovsk defense).

Alexander II (Alexander II the Liberator), who reigned 1855-1881, undertakes a broad program of reforms, the most prominent of which is the abolition of serfdom in 1861, Zemstvo and Judicial reform are carried out, in order to strengthen the combat readiness of the army, undermined by the beginning of the Crimean War, Military reform.

The formation of the Russian Empire took place on October 22, 1721 according to the old style, or November 2. It was on this day that the last Russian Tsar, Peter 1 the Great, declared himself Emperor of Russia. This happened as one of the consequences of the Northern War, after which the Senate asked Peter 1 to accept the title of Emperor of the country. The state received the name “Russian Empire”. Its capital became the city of St. Petersburg. During all this time, the capital was moved to Moscow for only 2 years (from 1728 to 1730).

Territory of the Russian Empire

When considering the history of Russia of that era, it is necessary to remember that at the time of the formation of the empire, large territories were annexed to the country. This became possible thanks to the successful foreign policy of the country, which was led by Peter 1. He created a new history, a history that returned Russia to the number of world leaders and powers whose opinions are worth taking into account.

The territory of the Russian Empire was 21.8 million km2. It was the second largest country in the world. In first place was the British Empire with its numerous colonies. Most of them have retained their status to this day. The country's first laws divided its territory into 8 provinces, each of which was governed by a governor. He had full local power, including judicial power. Subsequently, Catherine 2 increased the number of provinces to 50. Of course, this was done not through the annexation of new lands, but through fragmentation. This greatly increased the state apparatus and quite significantly reduced the efficiency of local government in the country. We will talk about this in more detail in the corresponding article. It should be noted that at the time of the collapse of the Russian Empire, its territory consisted of 78 provinces. The largest cities in the country were:

1. Saint Petersburg.
2. Moscow.
3. Warsaw.
4. Odessa.
5. Lodz.
6. Riga.
7. Kyiv.
8. Kharkiv.
9. Tiflis.
10. Tashkent.

The history of the Russian Empire is full of both bright and negative moments. This time period, which lasted less than two centuries, included a huge number of fateful moments in the fate of our country. It was during the period of the Russian Empire that the Patriotic War, campaigns in the Caucasus, campaigns in India, and European campaigns took place. The country developed dynamically. The reforms affected absolutely all aspects of life. It was the history of the Russian Empire that gave our country great commanders, whose names are on the lips to this day not only in Russia, but throughout Europe - Mikhail Illarionovich Kutuzov and Alexander Vasilyevich Suvorov. These famous generals forever inscribed their names in the history of our country and covered Russian weapons with eternal glory.

Map

We present a map of the Russian Empire, a brief history of which we are considering, which shows the European part of the country with all the changes that occurred in terms of territories over the years of the existence of the state.

Population

By the end of the 18th century, the Russian Empire was the largest country in the world by area. Its scale was such that the messenger, who was sent to all corners of the country to report the death of Catherine 2, arrived in Kamchatka 3 months later! And this despite the fact that the messenger rode almost 200 km every day.

Russia was also the most populous country. In 1800, about 40 million people lived in the Russian Empire, most of them in the European part of the country. Just under 3 million lived beyond the Urals. The national composition of the country was motley:

• East Slavs. Russians (Great Russians), Ukrainians (Little Russians), Belarusians. For a long time, almost until the very end of the Empire, it was considered a single people.
• Estonians, Latvians, Latvians and Germans lived in the Baltic states.
• Finno-Ugric (Mordovians, Karelians, Udmurts, etc.), Altai (Kalmyks) and Turkic (Bashkirs, Tatars, etc.) peoples.
• Peoples of Siberia and the Far East (Yakuts, Evens, Buryats, Chukchi, etc.).

As the country developed, some of the Kazakhs and Jews who lived on the territory of Poland became its subjects, but after its collapse they went to Russia.

The main class in the country were peasants (about 90%). Other classes: philistinism (4%), merchants (1%), and the remaining 5% of the population were distributed among the Cossacks, clergy and nobility. This is the classic structure of an agrarian society. And indeed, the main occupation of the Russian Empire was agriculture. It is no coincidence that all the indicators that fans of the tsarist regime love to be so proud of today are related to agriculture (we are talking about the import of grain and butter).

By the end of the 19th century, 128.9 million people lived in Russia, of which 16 million lived in cities, and the rest in villages.

Political system

The Russian Empire was autocratic in its form of government, where all power was concentrated in the hands of one person - the emperor, who was often called, in the old manner, the tsar. Peter 1 laid down in the laws of Russia precisely the unlimited power of the monarch, which ensured autocracy. Simultaneously with the state, the autocrat actually ruled the church.

An important point is that after the reign of Paul 1, autocracy in Russia could no longer be called absolute. This happened due to the fact that Paul 1 issued a decree according to which the system of transfer of the throne established by Peter 1 was abolished. Peter Alekseevich Romanov, let me remind you, decreed that the ruler himself determines his successor. Some historians today talk about the negative aspects of this document, but this is precisely the essence of autocracy - the ruler makes all decisions, including about his successor. After Paul 1, the system returned in which the son inherits the throne from his father.

Rulers of the country

Below is a list of all the rulers of the Russian Empire during the period of its existence (1721-1917).

Rulers of the Russian Empire

Emperor	Years of reign
Peter 1	1721-1725
Ekaterina 1	1725-1727
Peter 2	1727-1730
Anna Ioannovna	1730-1740
Ivan 6	1740-1741
Elizabeth 1	1741-1762
Peter 3	1762
Ekaterina 2	1762-1796
Pavel 1	1796-1801
Alexander 1	1801-1825
Nikolay 1	1825-1855
Alexander 2	1855-1881
Alexander 3	1881-1894
Nikolay 2	1894-1917

All the rulers were from the Romanov dynasty, and after the overthrow of Nicholas 2 and the murder of himself and his family by the Bolsheviks, the dynasty was interrupted and the Russian Empire ceased to exist, changing the form of statehood to the USSR.

Key dates

During its existence, which is almost 200 years, the Russian Empire experienced many important moments and events that had an impact on the state and people.

• 1722 – Table of Ranks
• 1799 – Suvorov’s foreign campaigns in Italy and Switzerland
• 1809 – Annexation of Finland
• 1812 – Patriotic War
• 1817-1864 – Caucasian War
• 1825 (December 14) – Decembrist uprising
• 1867 – Sale of Alaska
• 1881 (March 1) assassination of Alexander 2
• 1905 (January 9) – Bloody Sunday
• 1914-1918 – First World War
• 1917 – February and October revolutions

Completion of the Empire

The history of the Russian Empire ended on September 1, 1917, old style. It was on this day that the Republic was proclaimed. This was proclaimed by Kerensky, who by law did not have the right to do this, so declaring Russia a Republic can safely be called illegal. Only the Constituent Assembly had the authority to make such a proclamation. The fall of the Russian Empire is closely connected with the history of its last emperor, Nicholas 2. This emperor had all the qualities of a worthy person, but had an indecisive character. It was because of this that the unrest occurred in the country that cost Nicholas himself 2 his life, and the Russian Empire its existence. Nicholas 2 failed to strictly suppress the revolutionary and terrorist activities of the Bolsheviks in the country. There were indeed objective reasons for this. The main one is the First World War, in which the Russian Empire was involved and exhausted in it. The Russian Empire was replaced by a new type of government system in the country - the USSR.

1. The first Russian revolution took place in ________.

2. The shooting in St. Petersburg on January 9, 1905 of a peaceful procession to the Winter Palace with a petition to the Tsar was called...

A) "Bloody Sunday"

B) Lena execution

B) All-Russian political strike

D) palace coup

3. The “Manifesto” of Nicholas II, which granted political rights and freedoms and the creation of a parliament, was adopted...

4. The State Duma, the lower house of parliament, began its work in ____.

5. The dissolution of the Second State Duma and the adoption of a new electoral law in circumvention of it were called...

A) revolutionary situation

B) “Zubatovism”

B) June 3rd coup d'etat

D) "Bloody Sunday"

A) monopolies

B) judicial system

B) republican form of government

D) parliamentarism

7.

B) Liberal-opposition

1) “Union of the Russian People”

3) RSDLP(b)

8. Indicate the correct correspondence between the direction of socio-political thought and the political party of the early 20th century.

A) Revolutionary-democratic

B) Liberal-opposition

B) Conservative-protective

1) “Union of the Russian People”

9. Indicate the correct correspondence between the convening of the State Duma and its fate...
A) first

B) third

B) fourth

1) worked full term

2) disbanded during the February Revolution of 1917

3) disbanded during the decline of the revolution.

10. Indicate the correct correspondence to the political party of the early twentieth century. and the date of its creation

B) RSDLP(b)

1) 1901-1902

11. Indicate the correct correspondence to the political party of the early twentieth century. and its leader

A) RSDLP(b)

B) cadets

1) P.N. Miliukov

2) V.M. Chernov

3) V.I. Lenin

12. The growing national crisis in Russia during World War I was evidenced by...

A) increasing economic difficulties

B) strengthening of autocracy

C) prohibition of the activities of political parties

D) mutiny on the battleship Potemkin

13. The growing national crisis in Russia during the First World War was evidenced by (o, a) ...

A) participation in the anti-Hitler coalition

B) “ministerial leapfrog”

B) June 3rd coup d'etat of 1907

D) Kronstadt rebellion

14. The growing national crisis in Russia during the First World War was evidenced by (o, a, i) ...

A) the inability of the government to cope with the situation in the country

B) dissolution of the State Duma with the outbreak of war

B) establishment of dual power

D) the events of "Bloody Sunday"

15. In World War I, Russia took part as part of...

A) Triple Alliance

B) Progressive block

B) Entente

D) Anti-Comintern Pact

16. With the slogan of turning the imperialist war into a civil war, i.e. for the defeat of their government, advocated...

A) Octobrists

B) cadets

B) monarchists

D) Bolsheviks

17. The chronological framework of World War I is ____ years.

18. The transformation of the IV State Duma into an opposition center was evidenced by the creation in 1915...

A) Progressive block

B) Entente bloc

B) Bolshevik party

D) Triple Alliance

19. Russia's allies in World War I were...

A) Germany and Italy

B) England and France

B) England and Germany

D) France and Germany

20. During World War I, the Entente military bloc was opposed by...

A) Progressive block

B) Anti-Comintern Pact

B) Triple Alliance

D) Comintern

21. One of the heroic pages of the history of World War I was...

A) “Brusilovsky breakthrough”

B) “Kornilovism”

B) “Antonovism”

D) Kronstadt rebellion

22. Indicate the correct chronological sequence of events of the February Revolution of 1917...

A) shooting of demonstrators in Petrograd

B) strike at the Putilov plant

IN ) mass transition of the Petrograd garrison to the side of the rebels

23. The only State Duma to serve a full term is...

A) first

B) second

B) fourth

D) third

24. The reason for the change in the party composition and the nature of the activities of the III and IV State Dumas was...

A) "Bloody Sunday"

C) defeat of the December armed uprising in Moscow

25. The inter-party coalition of deputies of the IV State Duma, which during World War I stood in opposition to the government, was named...

A) Progressive block

B) Triple Alliance

B) Anti-Comintern Pact

D) “Bulyginskaya Duma”

26. The IV State Duma was dissolved...

A) Nicholas II during the February (1917) revolution

B) Provisional government

B) Soviet power

D) interventionists of the Entente countries

27. The split of the RSDLP into two wings - the Bolsheviks and the Mensheviks - occurred at the Second Party Congress in ___.

28. The Menshevik wing of the RSDLP was headed by...

A) G. Plekhanov and Yu. Martov

B) V. Lenin and G. Plekhanov

B) V. Chernov and M. Spiridonova

D) P. Milyukov and A. Guchkov

A) socialist

B) monarchical

B) revolutionary

D) liberal

30. The Union of the Russian People was one of the major ___ parties.

A) liberal

B) socialist

B) opposition

D) monarchical

31. The "Party of Russian Constitutional Democrats" (cadets) was formed in:

32. Terror, as a tactic for implementing the party program, was chosen by the Socialist-Revolutionary Party? A) Socialist-Revolutionaries B) Cadets C) “Union of October 17” D) Social Democrats

33. What was the main issue in the work of the First State Duma?

A) agricultural

B) national

B) worker

D) the question of state power

34. Why are the events associated with the dissolution of the Second State Duma and the publication of the new Electoral Law of June 3, 1907 called a coup d'état?

A) the Duma was dispersed by force

B) the emperor did not have the right to dissolve the Duma

C) the emperor did not have the right to change the electoral law without the consent of the State Duma

D) the emperor transferred power to the military

35. Who was the Supreme Commander-in-Chief of the Russian Army in the initial period of the First World War?

A) Nicholas II

B) Grand Duke Nikolai Nikolaevich

B) A.A. Brusilov

D) General M.V. Alekseev

36. One of the results of the revolution of 1905 - 1907. was

A) the emergence of a multi-party system

B) overthrow of the autocracy

B) the introduction of universal suffrage

D) establishment of Soviet power

37. The main result of the February Revolution of 1917:

A) the Bolsheviks came to power

B) liquidation of autocracy

B) establishing the power of the councils

D) the split of society into reds and whites.

38. The February Revolution of 1917 was by its nature:

A) socialist

B) bourgeois-democratic

B) anarchic

D) “velvet”

39. The interests of which strata of Russian society did the Socialist Revolutionary Party express?A) the average urban bourgeoisie and intelligentsiaB) the peasantryC) large industrialists, the financial bourgeoisie, liberal landowners and wealthy intelligentsiaD) workers

40. What events marked the highest rise of the revolutionary movement of 1905-1907?

A) All-Russian October political strike and armed uprising in Moscow

B) mutiny on the battleship Potemkin

B) national liberation movement of January 1906 - June 1907 in Poland, Finland, the Baltic states and Ukraine

D) "Bloody Sunday" 41. The interests of which strata of Russian society did the RSDLP express?A) the average urban bourgeoisie and intelligentsiaB) the peasantryC) large industrialists, the financial bourgeoisie, liberal landowners and wealthy intelligentsiaD) workers 42. The interests of which layers of Russian society were expressed by the "Union of October 17"? A) the average urban bourgeoisie and intelligentsia B) the peasantry C) large industrialists, the financial bourgeoisie, liberal landowners and wealthy intelligentsia D) workers 43. Which party received the majority in the First State Duma?A) Socialist-RevolutionariesB) OctobristsC) CadetsD) RSDLP 44. Which party received the majority in the Third State Duma?A) Socialist-RevolutionariesB) OctobristsC) CadetsD) RSDLP 45. The final organizational formation of the Socialist Revolutionary Party occurred A) at the end of 1905 - beginning of 1906 B) in 1898 C) in 1902 D) in 1907 46. What functions were assigned to the State Council after the decree of Nicholas II of February 20, 1906?A) Functions of the Legislative Upper House of ParliamentB) Functions of control over the activities of the State DumaC) Functions of control over the execution of decisions of the State DumaD) Functions of the Legislative Lower House of Parliament 47. Representatives of which Russian class received political advantages according to the Electoral Law of June 3, 1907? A) Landowners B) Representatives of the bourgeoisie C) Intellectuals D) Workers and peasants 48. The organizational formation of the party “Union of the Russian People” occurred A) in 1905 B) in 1898 C) in 1902 D) in 1907

49. What operation was successful for Russian troops during the First World War?

A) Galician operation (August - September 1914)

B ) Gorlitsky breakthrough (April - June 1915)

B) offensive in Belarus (July 1917)

D) East Prussian operation (1914)

50. Indicate the time frame for the activities of the Second State Duma?

A) April - July 1906

B) February - June 1907

B) November-June 1912

D) February-March 1906

51. When did the IV State Duma begin its work? A) 1910 B) 1911 C) 1912 D) 1915 52. One of the results of the first Russian revolution is A) the introduction of a number of civil liberties B) the introduction of universal suffrage C) the overthrow of the autocracy D) the transfer of power in the country to the Soviets 53. Name the main reason for the February Revolution. A) the inability of the tsarist government to solve the basic socio-economic issues of Russian society. B) the revolutionary agitation of the Bolsheviks C) the decline in the prestige of the imperial family D) the First World War 54. What was the main result of the February Revolution?A) autocracy was abolishedB) landownership was abolishedC) parliament appearedD) a multi-party system was formed 55. Who was elected Chairman of the Provisional Government in March 1917? A) P. N. Milyukov B) G. E. Lvov C) A. F. Kerensky D) A. A. Kornilov 56. What events served as the reason for the beginning of the February Revolution? A) Women's demonstration on International Women's Day. B) Capture of the Peter and Paul Fortress by workers and soldiers. C) Strike of workers of the Putilov plant.

D) "Bloody Sunday"

57. M.A. Bakunin is one of the founders of the theory:

A) anarchism

B) communal socialism

B) class struggle

D) scientific socialism

D) official nationality

58. Peasants were called “temporarily obliged”:

A) personally free and performing duties in favor of the landowner before the conclusion of the redemption transaction

B) state-owned, supplying the state with recruits

C) “free cultivators” obliged to pay taxes to the state

D) otkhodniks who are obliged to return to the farm upon first request

59. The leaders of Marxist circles in Russia were:

A) D. Blagoev, N. Fedoseev, M. Brusnev

B) G. Plekhanov, V. Zasulich, P. Axelrod

B) N. Muravyov, I. Pushchin, I. Yakushkin

D) M. Bakunin, P. Lavrov, P. Tkachev

60. Elections to zemstvo institutions were:

A) class

B) classless

B) universal

D) democratic

61. What was the main goal of Russia's foreign policy activities in the Middle East in the 70s of the 19th century?

A) establishing control over the holy places in Palestine

B) capture of Constantinople

C) strengthening influence in the Balkans and ensuring the security of trade routes through the straits

D) creation of a federation of Slavic states

62. Judicial, zemstvo and school reforms began to be carried out in Russia in:

63. After the reform of 1861, the following forms of land ownership remained in Russia:

A) allotment, private, government

B) allotment, state, public

B) private, government, state

D) government, public, state

64. The statement that “it is better to begin the destruction of serfdom from above, rather than wait for the time when it begins to be destroyed by itself from below” was made in 1856:

A) A. I. Herzen

B) M.M. Speransky

B) Alexander II

D) Deputy Minister of Internal Affairs N.A. Milyutin

65. The main element of the military reform of 1874 was (was):

A) replacement of obsolete weapons

B) replacement of the sailing fleet with steam

C) the creation of large trained reserves with a limited army size

D) introduction of universal military training

66. Taking advantage of the Franco-Prussian War of 1870 and the defeat of France, Russia:

A) entered into a coalition with Prussia

B) entered into an alliance with Austria

B) became more active in the East and signed a number of agreements with China

D) restored its sovereign rights in the Black Sea

67. In 1856, the following was appointed Minister of Foreign Affairs:

A) A. M. Gorchakov

B) K.P. Pobedonostsev

B) M. T. Loris-Melikov

D) D. A. Tolstoy

68. Years of reign of Alexander II:

A) 1801-1825

B) 1825-1855

B) 1855-1881

D) 1881-1894

69. When did the city government reform begin?

70. The organization "Land and Freedom" was created in:

71. The treaty signed in 1873 between Russia, Germany and Austria-Hungary is known as:

A) "Triple Alliance"

B) “The Alliance of the Three Emperors”

B) "Triple Entente"

D) "Entente"

72. “Populism” was characterized by:

A) idealization of the Russian people as a whole and the Tsar

B) idealization of the Russian people and peasant community

C) idealization of the peasant community and serfdom

D) idealization of the intelligentsia and peasants

73. The printed organ of the liberal movement in Russia in 1860-70. was:

A) "Russian Messenger"

B) "Bell"

B) "Spark"

D) "Contemporary"

74. The terms of military service according to the provisions of the military reform of 1874 began to depend on:

A) class affiliation

B) property qualification

B) education and type of troops

D) official position

75. Whose ideas led to “going to the people” in the 70s? XIX century?

A) P.N. Tkacheva

B) P.L. Lavrova

B) M.A. Bakunin

D) N.G. Chernyshevsky

76. At the head of domestic policy during the so-called period. "dictatorship of the heart" was:

A) P.K. Pobedonostsev

B) M.T. Loris-Melikov

B) P.A. Stolypin

D) S.Yu. Witte

77. “Land and Freedom” split into:

A) “Black redistribution” and “People’s reprisal”

B) “People’s will” and “People’s reprisal”

B) “Black redistribution” and “People’s will”

D) “People's Will” and “Emancipation of Labor”

78. After the defeat of France and the unification of Germany, Russian diplomacy entered into an agreement with:

B) USA and England

B) England and China

D) Germany and Austria-Hungary

79. How were zemstvos formed?

A) by election from representatives of all classes

B) by election from representatives of the nobility

C) by appointing representatives of various classes to the zemstvo by the governor

D) based on universal suffrage

80. When did zemstvos appear in Russia?

81. What was the consequence of the implementation of the new Regulations on provincial and district zemstvo institutions of 1890?

A) the position of the nobility in zemstvos strengthened

B) the position of the peasantry in the zemstvos strengthened

C) the position of the merchants in the zemstvos strengthened

D) universal suffrage was introduced

D) zemstvo provincial and district institutions were liquidated

82. At what international forum were the results of the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878 reviewed?

A) at the London Conference of 1879

B) at the Berlin Congress of 1878

B) at the Paris Peace Congress of 1878

D) at the Hague Conference of 1899

83. What caused the aggravation of the situation in the Balkans in the mid-70s of the 19th century?

A) Russian interference in the internal affairs of Turkey

B) attack of England and France on Turkey

B) national liberation movement of the Balkan peoples

D) Germany's aggressive plans

84. Serfdom in Russia was abolished in:

85. One of the results of the San Stefano Peace Treaty of 1878 was:

A) division of Bulgaria into two parts

B) creation of a new state-principality of Bulgaria

C) Russia receiving o. Cyprus

D) the territories of Serbia, Montenegro and Romania were reduced

86. Years of reign of Alexander III:

A) 1825-1855

B) 1855-1881

B) 1881-1894

D) 1801-1825

87. The era of “counter-reforms” in Russia is associated with the name:

A) Alexander II

B) Alexander III

B) Nicholas II

D) Nicholas I

88. The era of “counter-reforms” is characterized by:

A) pursuing a liberal course

B) increasing conservatism in government policy

C) continuation of the reforms of Alexander II

D) development of a new course of reforms

89. The industrial revolution in Russia ended in:

A) 40s of the 19th century

B) 80s of the 19th century

B) at the beginning of the twentieth century

D) in the second half of the twentieth century

90. Indicate the name of a figure in the populist movement in Russia:

A) Yu.O. Martov

B) A.I. Zhelyabov

B) V.I. Ulyanov-Lenin

D) P.N. Miliukov

91. Peasants freed from personal dependence, but not transferred to ransom, were called:

A) serfs

B) freedmen

B) temporarily obliged

D) independent

92. In the second half of the 19th century. demands for the liquidation of the autocracy were typical of representatives of:

A) revolutionary direction

B) liberal direction

93. With the demand for the creation of a constitutional monarchy in Russia in the second half of the 19th century. representatives spoke:

A) revolutionary direction

B) liberal direction

B) conservative direction

94. Reforms 60-70 XIX century in Russia contributed to:

A) preservation of traditional agrarian society

B) development of capitalist relations

B) strengthening autocracy

D) an increase in the number of popular protests

95. The participation of various classes in local self-government became possible as a result of:

A) peasant reform of 1861

B) military reform of 1874

C) zemstvo and city reforms of the 60-70s of the 19th century

D) judicial reform of 1864

96. The zemstvos created after the reform of 1864 were responsible for:

A) all political and socio-economic issues

B) economic affairs of the district and province

C) court cases of the county and province

D) performed police functions

97. The main reason for the reforms of the 60-70s. XIX century:

A) popular unrest

B) liberal views of Alexander II

C) the backwardness of Russia’s internal development from leading European countries

D) military defeats of Russia in the Crimean War

98. The main developer of the military reform of the 60-70s. XIX century was:

A) S.I. Zarudny

B) Alexander II

B) D.A. Milyutin

D) Count N.I. Panin

99. M.T. Transformation Project Loris-Melikova was named:

A) Constitution

B) “Russian Truth”

D) “Charter of Charter”

100. What duties were temporary peasants required to perform?

A) pay quitrent or serve corvee in favor of its former owner before being transferred for ransom

B) participate in all county public free works

C) work for free for the state once a week

D) they were relieved of all responsibilities in favor of the landowners

101. Representatives of which organization prepared and carried out the assassination of Alexander II?

A) “Black redistribution”

B) "People's Will"

B) “Northern Union of Russian Workers”

D) “Union of Struggle for the Liberation of the Working Class”

102. Who was the leader and ideologist of the conspiratorial trend in populism?

A) M.A. Bakunin

B) P.L. Lavrov

B) P.N. Tkachev

D) N.G. Chernyshevsky

103. When did the populists make their first “going to the people” with the aim of preparing a peasant revolution?

104. Under “propaganda with facts” M.A. Bakunin understood:

A) the device of continuous riots

In the 70-80s pp. XVIII century Russia was inferior in level of development to advanced European states, but new relations of production were already being formed in the feudal economy of the country. Agriculture remained the main branch of the economy, which expanded during this period, primarily due to the development of lands in the south, in the Middle and Lower Volga region, Siberia, the southern part of the black earth center, Sloboda and Southern Ukraine, and Ciscaucasia. The basis of agriculture, as before, was Trypillia. The agricultural level was low and routine. More than 90% of the country's population were peasants, mostly landowners.

In the XVIII century. Noble land ownership grew: 800 thousand so-called revision souls were distributed to landowners, serfdom strengthened and duties grew. However, capitalist production relations gradually penetrated into agriculture: the peasants were transferred to cash rent, labor, and manufactories arose that belonged to the peasants.

The main obstacle to the development of agriculture was the dominance of serfdom.

In industry, manufactories were formed by expanding small-scale commodity production and subordinating small commodity producers to buyers. Depending on the form of ownership, there were noble, merchant and peasant manufactories.

at the end of the century, Russia took first place in Europe in the production and export of metallurgical products. Shipbuilding was an important industry. Shipyards operated in St. Petersburg, Arkhangelsk, Voronezh, and Kazan. The centers of light industry were Moscow and St. Petersburg. Some branches of light industry were formed in areas with a sufficient amount of raw materials: linen and sailing manufactories were created in Yaroslavl, near Kaluga, Kostroma, Voronezh, Kazan, Putivl, and the Vladimir province became the center of textile weaving. At the end of the century there were more than 2 thousand manufactories in Russia.

The total volume of foreign trade increased 5 times, with exports exceeding imports. Russia traded grain, iron, timber, furs, and bought sugar, silk, paints, etc.

In the second half of the 18th century. In all spheres of economic life in Russia, not only quantitative, but also qualitative changes occurred, associated with the decomposition of serfdom and the formation of capitalist production relations, the development of commodity-money relations and the destruction of the natural economy.

Despite the fairly dynamic development of the Russian economy, its situation was not brilliant. An ineffective economic system, the increasing wastefulness of the imperial court, embezzlement of officials, excessive expenses for maintaining the army, constant unrest among peasants and workers and other factors led to the financial bankruptcy of Russia. The state treasury was empty, and foreign lenders refused new loans. This was one of the reasons for the palace coup of 1762.

Emperor Peter ///(1728-1762) (Duke of Schleswig-Holstein, grandson of Peter I and Charles XII) was a peculiar person and pursued contradictory domestic and foreign policies. In 1742, Empress Elizaveta Petrovna officially proclaimed him heir to the Russian throne, and from the age of 14, Karl Ulrich (real name of Peter III) lived in Russia under the supervision of the empress and his tutor, professor of the Russian Academy of Sciences J. Shtellin. However, they were unable to educate him in the spirit of respect for Russia, its customs and traditions. Peter III remained a lifelong adherent of his idol - the Prussian king Frederick the Great and his system of government.

Empress Elizabeth did not like Peter III and tried to prevent him from governing the state. Peter III also did not have a good relationship with his wife, Ekaterina Alekseevna. The future emperor's disdain for everything Russian even forced Elizabeth to develop a plan for transferring the Russian throne to her grandson, Paul. However, after the death of the Empress in December 1761, the Russian crown automatically passed to Peter III.

The short period of the reign of Peter III was marked by a number of important reforms in domestic policy, which to a certain extent can be considered an attempt to modernize Russia and a radical revolution in foreign policy. First of all, the emperor issued decrees that showed a certain influence of legislation introduced in Prussia. In January 1762, a decree on religious tolerance was issued. Representatives of various religious denominations, primarily schismatics, were no longer persecuted by the government; they were allowed to settle compactly in Siberia and engage in agriculture.

In February 1762, a royal decree was issued on the liquidation of the Secret Chancellery and a manifesto on the freedom of the nobility. From now on, nobles were exempt from compulsory military and civil service. The manifesto was intended to attract the nobility to economic activities on their estates. In March, the emperor initiated a decree on the secularization of church and monastic estates.

However, these generally progressive measures of the emperor encountered discontent among the upper strata of Russian society. The decree on religious tolerance and the secularization of church landholdings was considered anti-Orthodox. The manifesto on the freedom of the nobility hurt the interests of the aristocrats, the middle and petty nobility. The first saw in the public service a source of enrichment and sought only their own inviolability and the prohibition of confiscation of their property. For the impoverished nobility, military service was the only source of livelihood and opportunity to make a career. In addition, Peter III reorganized the army according to the Prussian model, introduced drill and strict discipline, dissolved the privileged part of the guard, which further alienated the nobility.

However, most of all, Russian society was outraged by the pro-German foreign policy of Peter III. Russia participated in the Seven Years' War (1756-1763); the Russian army achieved significant success in the fight against the Prussian army of Frederick the Great: in 1760, together with the Austrians, it entered Berlin. East Prussia was declared a Russian possession, and its population began to take an oath of allegiance to the Russian crown. Immediately after ascending the throne, the new emperor ordered the troops of General Chernyshev’s corps to go over to Frederick’s side and turn their arms against their former allies, the Austrians. Soon negotiations with the king about peace began and the Russian emperor invited Frederick to draw up the terms of this treaty himself. It was signed on April 24, 1762. Russia returned all conquered territories to Prussia and pledged to sign a defensive alliance. Peter III was preparing for war with Denmark in order to tear away the Duchy of Schleswig from it and annex it to his homeland - the Duchy of Holstein (Holstein). A Russian corps under General P. Rumyantsev was even sent to Pomerania. Russia's foreign policy was actually led by the ambassador of the Prussian king, Baron Goltz.

On June 28, 1762, guards officers carried out a palace coup and elevated the wife of Peter III, Ekaterina Alekseevna, to the Russian throne, who ruled under the name of Catherine II (1762 - 1796).

Catherine II Alekseevna (Sofia-Frederica-Augusta) (1729 - 1796) - Russian empress, wife of Emperor Peter III; after the coup of 1762 ruled autocratically. During her reign, the absolute monarchy was strengthened, the class privileges of the nobility were formed, the oppression of the peasant masses intensified (Pugachev's uprising of 1773-1775pp.), an active foreign policy was pursued aimed at protecting Russia from Turkish-Crimean aggression and the threat of Sweden in the Baltic, neutralizing Austria and Prussia for account of a forced concession in resolving the issue of Poland, active opposition from England (overt support was provided for the American Revolution and the new state - the USA). As a result of the Russian-Turkish wars (1768-1774,1787-1791) and three sections of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (1772, 1793,1795), the Russian Empire captured most of the Ukrainian lands (except for Galicia, Bukovina and Transcarpathia). Catherine II pursued a policy aimed at the final elimination of the autonomy of Ukraine: in 1764 the hetmanate was abolished, in 1765. The Cossack regiments in Slobozhanshchina were disbanded in 1775. The Zaporozhye Sich was finally destroyed in 1782. In the Hetmanate, the regimental and centenary administration was liquidated and a division into 3 governorships was introduced; in 1788, the Cossack regiments on the Left Bank were disbanded and serfdom was legally introduced. In 1785, with a “charter granted to the nobility,” Catherine II legislated the rights and privileges of the Russian nobility and equated the Ukrainian Cossack elders with them, assigning land holdings to them. There was intensive development of the economy (industry, trade). In the field of culture and education, the reign of Catherine II was reflected in the attempt to create an education system, the development of literature, art and architecture, and the subsequent Russification of the non-Russian outskirts of the empire.

On June 29, Peter III abdicated the throne and was exiled to the present day. Ropsha, near St. Petersburg. A few days later the former emperor was killed. The new empress came to power with the help of the nobility, and therefore her entire domestic and foreign policy was aimed at satisfying its interests.

Second half of the 18th century. was characterized by the further development of absolutism in the Russian Empire. The internal policy of the Russian autocracy of this period was called the policy of enlightened absolutism.

Relying on the nobility, Catherine II cared about strengthening the autocracy and preserving the inviolability of the feudal-serf system. The pinnacle of noble privileges was the manifesto “On the granting of liberty and freedom to the entire Russian nobility.” The nobility was exempted from compulsory public service, and the inviolability of their property was legally established. This manifesto extended the title of nobility to the German barons of the Baltic states, Ukrainian Cossack elders, etc.

Catherine II also issued a decree dividing the Senate into six departments with different functions, which weakened its influence as a government body, and created a personal office - “Her Majesty's Cabinet”, concentrating all executive power in her hands. A reform of local government bodies was carried out (all local power was concentrated with the governor), and in Central Russia and Left Bank Ukraine - the secularization of monastic lands. The most striking embodiment of the policy of enlightened absolutism was the convening of the Legislative Commission (a meeting of representatives of the estates), one of the tasks of which was to replace the outdated Code of 1649.

In response to the empress's call to take part in the creation of new legislation, the deputies brought with them thousands of orders from their voters, during the discussion of which sharp contradictions between the classes were revealed. The nobles demanded an expansion of their privileges, an increase in landownership at the expense of peasant plots, tougher punishment of peasants for misconduct, and the like. The merchants sought freedom of enterprise, protection from the state from competition from foreign manufacturers, permission to buy serfs for factories, and the like. Peasant deputies asked to reduce onerous duties and introduce a single poll tax, allowing them to engage in crafts, trade and business activities. Some deputies raised the issue of the need to abolish serfdom, which forced Catherine II to stop the work of the Commission and complete the formation of the class system in Russia.

First of all, the peasants finally lost their personal freedom and became completely dependent on the landowners, becoming their private property. The Empress spread serfdom in two ways: she gave peasants to the nobles for faithful service (during her reign she distributed 400 thousand people to state peasants) and through legislative acts. By decree of 1763, peasants were forbidden to leave their landowners without special permission. In the same year, a new legislative act was issued, by which peasants were subjected to corporal punishment for disobedience to the landowners and were required to cover the losses they caused to the landowners. U1765r. landowners received the right to exile rebellious peasants to hard labor in Siberia without trial. Two years later, a new imperial decree prohibited peasants from filing complaints against landowners with government agencies. In this way, the landowners gradually transformed from landowners to owners of people and police stewards of their peasants.

In the XVIII century. The Peasant War of 1773-1775 broke out. led by Emelyan Pugachev. It began as a protest against the strengthening of serfdom and the restriction (of the Cossacks) of freedoms.

Emelyan Pugachev (1744-1775) - Don Cossack, leader of the Peasant War of 1773-1775, in which he acted under the name of Emperor Peter III. Participant of the Seven Years' War, campaigns under the command of A. Suvorov in Poland, the Russian-Turkish War of 1768 - 1774. For bravery he received the first Cossack officer rank of cornet. In 1771 he was elected ataman of the Terek Cossack army. He was repeatedly arrested for participating in anti-government protests. U1773r. organized the Cossack uprising, which grew into the Peasant War.

The war covered a vast territory - the Southern and Middle Urals, Western Siberia, Bashkiria), Perm Territory, the Kama region, the Volga region and the Don. Peasants, Cossacks, townspeople, and “working people” (workers of private and state-owned factories and factories) took an active part in it. During the war, thousands of peasants and nobles died, the economy of these regions was ruined and paralyzed.

The war began in the Urals from the performances of the Yaitsko Cossacks. From the beginning of the 18th century. they were in public service and defended the southern and eastern borders of Russia, were on government pay and enjoyed the right to elect their atamans and elders. The basis of their economic activity was fishing, hunting and cattle breeding. However, gradually the foreman and atamans took possession of the best fishing areas, hayfields and pastures, administered cash payments and forced the Cossacks to work on their farms.

The abuses of the Cossack elders and the government decree on the participation of the Cossacks in the war with Turkey caused Cossack unrest, which was suppressed by government troops. In 1772, regular army units occupied the Yaitsky town and arrested 86 of the most active and rebellious Cossacks, while others took refuge in distant farmsteads.

at the end of 1772 V. Pugachev arrived on Yaik. He declared himself Emperor Peter III, who did not die and was able to escape, and enlisted the support of the Cossacks in the fight for their rights. In 1773, the “Tsar-Father” addressed the people with a manifesto, in which he promised the peasants land and freedom, and the Cossacks money and food support. Pugachev's troops were constantly growing. In the fall, the rebels defeated small army detachments and surrounded the Orenburg fortress. At the end of the year, the uprising covered the entire Orenburg region, the Southern Urals and the Trans-Urals. The Bashkirs, led by Salavat Yulaev, rose up in rebellion. their troops captured several fortresses and approached the Ufa metropolitan area. Peasants and workers of Ural factories joined Pugachev. At the beginning of 1774, the rebel army numbered almost 30 thousand people and 100 cannons. It was divided into main detachments. The general leadership of the uprising was carried out by the Military Collegium, headed by A. Pugachev.

A regular army under the command of General A. Bibikov was sent against the rebels, which defeated the rebels near Orenburg, forcing them to lift the siege of the fortress. Soon the rebel detachments near Ufa and in the battle near the Sakmarsky town were defeated. Here the troops of General D. Golitsyn captured 1,500 people, among whom were the leaders of the rebels. Pugachev with a detachment of 500 people was forced to flee to the Urals.

In the Southern Urals, new rebel detachments joined Pugachev and in May 1774 they numbered 5 thousand people. In May - June, the peasant army captured the strong fortresses of Troitskaya and Osa and went to Kazan. It grew to 20 thousand people, but was poorly armed. On July 12, Pugachev captured Kazan, which was burned during the assault. Soon the rebels were defeated by government troops and O. Pugachev with the remnants of his army went to Nizhny Novgorod. However, as they moved away from Bashkiria, the rebel army was abandoned by the Bashkir cavalry, and the remoteness of the Ural factories deprived it of guns. Ultimately, in the summer of 1774, Russia signed peace with Turkey and a large regular army was equipped against the rebels (eight infantry regiments, eight cavalry regiments, five Cossack regiments, etc.) led by A. Suvorov.

On the right bank of the Volga, Pugachev decided to go to Moscow not through the well-fortified Nizhny Novgorod, but through Saratov. On August 6, the rebels captured the city and brutally dealt with its defenders - dozens of nobles were drowned in the Volga. Pursued by government troops, the rebel army went to Tsaritsyn. Pugachev hoped that when he captured the city, he would enlist the support of the Don Cossacks, spend the winter in the Kuban and in the spring make a new campaign against Moscow. On August 24, a decisive battle between the rebels and government troops took place near Tsaritsyn, in which Pugachev suffered a final defeat. He lost 2 thousand people killed, and 6 thousand rebels were captured. With a detachment of 160 Cossacks, Pugachev tried to break through to the Caspian Sea, but the Cossacks came to an agreement and handed him over to government officials. On January 10, 1775, Pugachev was executed on Bolotnaya Square in Moscow.

The consequence of the war was the centralization of government and the strengthening of the nobility - the support of the autocracy. In 1775, an administrative reform was carried out, according to which Russia was divided into 50 provinces, which in turn were divided into counties. In the provinces, power belonged to the governor, and in the districts and district towns - to the police captain and mayor. Financial management was centralized and class courts were created. In 1785, the so-called Letters of Grant to the nobility and cities were issued. The nobles were allowed to create their own corporate bodies (noble assemblies), under which peasants and their real estate were legally assigned. The nobles were exempt from taxes, duties, corporal punishment, the obligation to perform military and public service, etc. In cities, city councils and police and economic bodies were created, and citizens were divided into six categories according to property qualifications. New imperial decrees further strengthened serfdom: in 1783, the peasants of Left Bank Ukraine were finally prohibited from moving without permission to other places of residence. In 1792, the government restored the right of landless peasants to sell at auction for the landlord's debts.

Internal policy of tsarism at the end of the 18th century. characterized by the desire to strengthen the dominance of the nobility and the elite of the merchant class. Frightened by the fall of absolutism in France and peasant uprisings, the new Russian autocrat Paul I (1796-1801) made attempts to overcome internal political contradictions with the help of a military-bureaucratic dictatorship. During the four years of his reign, more than 2,000 legislative acts were issued, most of which were aimed at strengthening the absolute power of the monarch and the state apparatus. The nobility lost its liberties guaranteed by the acts of Catherine II; the right of self-government was taken away from cities; censorship was introduced and private printing houses were closed; subjects of the Russian Empire were prohibited from traveling abroad and importing foreign books; The Russian army was reorganized, in which new regulations were introduced and the system of command and control was modernized. At the same time, the position of the Orthodox clergy improved; state peasants received self-government; freedom of religion was introduced in the country; The compulsory work of a serf for a landowner was limited to three days a week, and the landowner could be punished for cruel treatment of peasants and the like. The metropolitan nobility, corrupted by privileges even during the reign of Catherine II, opposed the despotism of Paul I. It carried out a new coup d'etat and Pavel I was killed. His son Alexander became the new emperor of Russia.

Foreign policy and unprecedented military activity of Russia in the second half of the 18th century. was inspired by the desire of the nobility to seize new territories and markets - to take possession of the Crimea, reach the Sea of ​​Azov and the Caucasus Range, and annex Right Bank Ukraine and Belarus to Russia. This inevitably led to a clash with the Ottoman Empire and Poland, so it was necessary to find powerful allies. In 1764, Russia signed an alliance treaty with Prussia. Both countries guaranteed the integrity of the Polish constitution and the return of the so-called religious dissidents (that is, those who did not belong to the Catholic faith) of their rights. Austria, dissatisfied with the interference of Russia and Prussia in Polish affairs, decided to split the Russian-Prussian alliance and began to push Turkey towards war with Russia.

In Right Bank Ukraine, the Haidamak uprising broke out - Koliivshchyna. The Gaydamaks hoped for support from the Russian government, which sent regular troops to Ukraine. To fight the Haidamaks and Russians, the Polish gentry created the Bar Confederation in 1768, which turned to Turkey for help. The Porte government was in no hurry to bind itself to any obligations with the 8 Poles. At the same time, Haidamak troops attacked the border town of Balta on Turkish territory. This became the reason for Turkey to demand from Russia that the Haidamaks be punished and compensated for losses. Russian troops suppressed the Haydamak uprising, but this did not satisfy Turkey. In October 1768, the Russian ambassador was arrested in Istanbul and both countries began to prepare for war.

The main theater of the Russian-Turkish war of 1768-1774. became the territory between the Bug and Dniester rivers. The Russian army approached the Turkish fortress of Khotyn, where it defeated the 80-strong Turkish army, besieged the fortress and captured it by storm in September. The Turkish army left Moldova, part of Wallachia and retreated to the Danube. The following year, the 1st Russian Army under the command of General A. Rumyantsev set out from Khotin to the south and in the summer defeated the Turkish-Tatar troops in the Ryabaya Mogila tract, on the Larga River. The main forces of the Turkish army (150 thousand people) took a position on the city of Cahul. On July 21, 1770, the Russian army of A. Rumyantsev defeated the Turks, who lost 20 thousand people. The Russian fleet made the transition from the Baltic Sea to the Mediterranean and on June 26 destroyed the Turkish squadrons in Chesme Bay.

Russia and Türkiye began negotiations and soon signed a truce. However, after the intervention of Austria, Prussia and France, who were preoccupied with Russian victories, hostilities resumed. In the campaign of 1773, Russian troops inflicted several defeats on the Turkish army. The decisive year was 1774. In June, the division of General 0. Suvorov completely defeated the 40,000-strong Turkish corps in Battle of Kozludzhi Turkey asked for peace.

According to the Kuchuk-Kainardzhi peace of 1774, Russia received a large territory in the Lower Dnieper and Bug region, Crimea and Kuban became independent from Turkey. Porta was forced to pay Russia 4.5 million rubles as compensation for war losses.

In April 1783, Catherine II issued a manifesto in which she stated that Crimea, the Taman Peninsula and “the entire Kuban side were accepted under the All-Russian power.” In the summer of the same year, the construction of the Sevastopol metro station, the base of the Russian Black Sea Fleet, began in Crimea. In order to strengthen the position in Transcaucasia, which was subject to constant attacks from Turkey and Persia, Russia signed the Treaty of Georgievsk with Eastern Georgia in 1783. The Georgian king Irakli II, like the Crimean Khan, recognized himself as a vassal of Russia.

Preparing for an inevitable war with Turkey, Russia entered into an alliance with Austria, agreeing to its seizure of the Danube lands up to and including the Adriatic Sea, Vakhalia, Serbia, Bosnia, etc.

In August 1787, Turkey gave Russia an ultimatum: return Crimea, abandon the treaty with Georgia and previous Russian-Turkish treaties. On August 12, Türkiye declared war on Rosa. The international situation for Russia was unfavorable - its relations with Sweden worsened (the following year it began military operations against Russia), Prussia and England took an anti-Russian position.

The start of the war was unsuccessful for Russia. In September 1787, during a strong storm near Cape Kaliakra, the Russian Black Sea squadron perished. The following year, the army of Field Marshal G. Potemkin surrounded the Ochakov fortress and was able to capture it only at the end of the year. In 1789, the Russian army acted together with the Austrians. From the very beginning, the Turks had the initiative. In July they tried to split the Allied armies near Focsani, but failed. In the fall, Russian troops of 0. Suvorov and the Austrian army of Prince Coburg defeated the main Turkish forces in the battle on the Rimnik River. In 1790, Russia's ally Austria withdrew from the war and, through the mediation of England and Prussia, began peace negotiations with Turkey. However, even under such conditions, Russian troops captured the Turkish fortresses of Kiliya, Tulcea and Isakcha in the lower reaches of the Danube and surrounded the Izmail fortress. The Russian Black Sea squadron of Admiral F. Ushakov defeated the Turkish fleet in the Kerch Strait and near Tendra Island. Turkey's situation became hopeless after Russian troops under the command of A. Suvorov stormed the Izmail fortress on December 11, 1790.

After the Peace of Jassy in 1791, the entire northern coast of the Black Sea was assigned to Russia. The new border between Russia and Turkey was supposed to pass in the southwest along the river. Dniester. Türkiye renounced its claims to Crimea and Georgia.

Relations between Russia and Sweden were tense throughout the 18th century. The Swedish king Gustav III dreamed of returning the territories in the Baltic states lost at the beginning of the century during the Northern War (1700-1725). Russia has repeatedly joined Sweden's opponents. Thus, in 1764, the head of the Russian foreign policy department G. Panin came up with the idea of ​​​​an alliance of Prussia, Russia and Denmark against Austria and France. It was planned to involve Sweden as a “passive” member of the union. This political combination was seen in Stockholm as an attempt by Russia to strengthen its influence in Northern Europe. The successes of the Russians in the fight against the Turkish Empire worried the monarchs of Europe, and England and Prussia began to push Sweden towards war with Russia.

Sweden delivered an ultimatum to Russia demanding the return of all territories that belonged to Sweden before the Northern War, abandoning the Crimean Peninsula, and disarming the Russian fleet in the Baltic. This led to the Russian-Swedish war of 1788-1790. On June 21, 1788, Swedish troops numbering up to 40 thousand people crossed the Russian border and began shelling the Russian garrison of the Neishlot fortress in Finland. The main forces of the Russian army were fighting in the South against the Turkish army, so only a 20,000-strong corps was deployed against the Swedes. However, the main events of the war took place at sea.

The first battle between naval squadrons of the warring states took place in July 1788 near the island of Gogland. Having lost one ship, the Swedes were forced to retreat to Sveaborg Bay. In August of the following year, the Russian rowing flotilla in the Gulf of Finland defeated the Swedish fleet. The sea communications that provided the Swedish land army were blocked. The Russian army pushed the Swedes out of Finland. In the summer of 1790, the Swedes finally managed to defeat the Russian fleet, but this did not change the overall balance of forces in the theater of war, which was unfavorable for Sweden. In August 1790, the Verel Peace Treaty was signed in Finland, restoring the pre-war borders between both states.

In the second half of the 18th century. Russia actively intervened in the partitions of Poland, whose internal political situation was extremely difficult. Various noble political factions competed for power. Royal power was limited to the gentry's Sejm, where each gentry, using the right of “liberum veto” (I do not allow), could block the adoption of a decision unfavorable to him. Neighboring states - Austria, Prussia and Russia - decided to take advantage of the weakening of centralized power and the struggle of political groups. The reason for intervention in the internal affairs of Poland was the situation of religious dissidents (Orthodox, Protestants, etc.). Catholicism in Poland was the state religion, and representatives of other religious denominations were persecuted by the Catholic Church: churches were closed and priests were forbidden to perform religious rites, and forced Catholicization took place. Attempts by Russia and Prussia to mitigate religious oppression were resisted by magnates and gentry, who formed a wide variety of confederations and resorted to aggressive actions against dissidents.

The Confederation is a meeting of representatives of the gentry and the government, who were endowed with full power. Unlike the Sejm, decisions were made by majority vote.

In 1763, the Polish king August III died and a struggle began between noble factions who tried to elevate their pretenders to the throne. In the choice of the Polish king, the foreign policy factor played an important role: if the son of Augustus PI, the Saxon elector, was elected king, Poland would fall into the sphere of influence of Austria, which did not suit Russia and Prussia. The best candidate for Catherine II was Stanislav Poniatowski, who was nominated by the party led by the Czartoryski princes. Having supported its contender, Russia planned to seize part of the Polish lands and move the Russian border to the Western Dvina. The Prussian king Frederick the Great hoped to capture part of the northern Polish lands.

Having coordinated its actions with Prussia, Russia sent troops into Polish territory and helped S. Poniatowski gain the throne. In 1768, a Russian-Polish treaty was signed, which strengthened Russian influence in Poland and guaranteed political and religious rights to dissidents. The gentry, dissatisfied with this situation, created an anti-Russian confederation in Bar. Russian troops under the command of A. Suvorov were brought into Poland and defeated the Confederate troops. Fearing that Russia could finally seize Polish lands, in 1770 Prussia captured Pomerania, and Austria captured Galicia. In 1772, in St. Petersburg, Russia, Austria and Prussia signed an agreement on the division of Poland. Russia captured Eastern Belarus and the Polish part of the Baltic states (Dvinsk and Daugavpils), Prussia - Pomerania and Poznan, Austria - Galicia. Poland lost more than 200 thousand square meters. km of territory.

Foreign intervention led to a patriotic upsurge in Poland, which forced the king to change his attitude towards an alliance with Russia. Poland entered into a new alliance with Prussia, hoping with its help to carry out reforms and strengthen public administration. Taking advantage of the fact that Russia was at war with Turkey, Polish patriots developed a new constitution and adopted it at the Sejm in May 1791.

Dissatisfied with the reorientation of Poland's foreign policy, Russia supported the Polish party of supporters of the old state structure, led by Count F. Potocki, and put forward a demand to the Polish government to abolish the Constitution of 1791, threatening to break diplomatic relations. In May 1792, a 100,000-strong Russian army entered Polish territory. Polish troops under the command of General T. Kosciuszko tried to stop them, but were defeated. Russian troops captured Warsaw, and the Prussian army captured the cities of Poznan, Torun and Danzig.

Tadeusz Kosciuszko (Kosciuszko) (1746-1817) - leader of the 1794 uprising in Poland, an outstanding political figure, general, organizer of the struggle of the Polish people for independence. He studied at the Warsaw Cadet School and studied engineering in Germany, Italy and France. Participant in the Revolutionary War in North America (1775-1783). Brigadier General of the US Army. Author of the Polanetsky station wagon 1794 rub. on the liberation of Polish peasants from serfdom. Wounded, he was captured by the tsarist troops and imprisoned in the Peter and Paul Fortress in St. Petersburg. Released in 1796. Died in Switzerland.

In May 1793, Russia and Prussia announced the second partition of Poland. Right-bank Ukraine went to Russia. At the beginning of 1794, Polish patriots, led by T. Kosciuszko, rebelled against the Russians in Krakow. The rebels defeated the troops of A. Tormasov and drove the Russians out of Warsaw, the Uprising became nationwide. T. Kosciuszko’s general ideas about reducing corvée labor and the abolition of serfdom contributed to attracting peasants to the war of liberation. However, in the fall, the poorly armed rebels were defeated by the Russian troops of A. Suvorov, who again captured Warsaw. T. Kosciuszko was captured and imprisoned in St. Petersburg. King S. Poniatowski renounced the Polish throne.

As a result of the third partition of Poland in 1795, its independence was finally eliminated. Russia received Western Belarus,

Western Volyn, Lithuania and Courland, Austria - the Krakow, Sandomierz and Lublin regions, and Prussia - the remaining lands with Warsaw. As a result of the divisions of Poland, the territory of Russia expanded significantly - it became the largest empire in Europe.

In addition to the struggle for influence in Central Europe, the desire to resolve the Middle East issue, one of the important principles of the foreign policy of Tsarist Russia was the protective-monarchical principle. Russia broke off diplomatic and economic ties with revolutionary France, organized a landing of troops in Italy, and contributed to the Italian and Swiss campaigns led by A. Suvorov against revolutionary France.