Fundamental particles of matter in our time. On understanding the movement of matter, its ability to self-development, as well as the connection and interaction of material objects in modern natural science

ON THE UNDERSTANDING OF THE MOVEMENT OF MATTER, ITS ABILITY TO SELF-DEVELOPMENT, AND ALSO THE CONNECTION AND INTERACTION OF MATERIAL OBJECTS IN MODERN NATURAL SCIENCE

Tsyupka V. P.

Federal State Autonomous educational institution higher vocational education"Belgorod State National research university"(National Research University "BelSU")

1. Movement of matter

“An integral property of matter is movement” 1, which is a form of existence of matter and manifests itself in any of its changes. From the uncreatability and indestructibility of matter and its attributes, including movement, it follows that the movement of matter exists forever and is infinitely diverse in the form of its manifestations.

The existence of any material object is manifested in its movement, that is, in any change that occurs with it. During the change, some properties of the material object always change. Since the totality of all the properties of a material object, characterizing its certainty, individuality, and peculiarity at a particular moment in time, corresponds to its state, it turns out that the movement of a material object is accompanied by a change in its states. The change in properties can go so far that one material object can become another material object. “But a material object can never turn into a property” (for example, mass, energy), and “a property into a material object” 2, because only moving matter can be a changing substance. In natural science, the movement of matter is also called a natural phenomenon ( natural phenomenon).

It is known that “without movement there is no matter,” 3 just as without matter there can be no movement.

The movement of matter can be expressed quantitatively. The universal quantitative measure of the movement of matter, as well as any material object, is energy, which expresses the intrinsic activity of matter and any material object. Hence, energy is one of the properties of moving matter, and energy cannot be outside matter, separate from it. Energy has an equivalent relationship with mass. Consequently, mass can characterize not only the amount of a substance, but also the degree of its activity. From the fact that the movement of matter exists eternally and is infinitely diverse in the form of its manifestations, it inexorably follows that energy, which characterizes the movement of matter quantitatively, also exists eternally (uncreated and indestructible) and is infinitely diverse in the form of its manifestations. “Thus, energy never disappears or appears again, it only transforms from one type to another” 1 in accordance with the change in types of movement.

Various types (forms) of motion of matter are observed. They can be classified taking into account changes in the properties of material objects and the characteristics of their effects on each other.

The movement of the physical vacuum (free fundamental fields in the normal state) boils down to the fact that it constantly deviates slightly in different directions from its equilibrium, as if “trembling”. As a result of such spontaneous low-energy excitations (deviations, disturbances, fluctuations) virtual particles are formed, which immediately dissolve in the physical vacuum. This is the lowest (basic) energy state of a moving physical vacuum, its energy is close to zero. But a physical vacuum can, for some time in some place, transform into an excited state, characterized by a certain excess of energy. With such significant, high-energy excitations (deviations, disturbances, fluctuations) of the physical vacuum, virtual particles can complete their appearance and then real fundamental particles break out of the physical vacuum different types, and, as a rule, in pairs (having electric charge in the form of a particle and antiparticle with electric charges of opposite signs, for example, in the form of an electron-positron pair).

Single quantum excitations of various free fundamental fields are fundamental particles.

Fermion (spinor) fundamental fields can generate 24 fermions (6 quarks and 6 antiquarks, as well as 6 leptons and 6 antileptons), divided into three generations (families). In the first generation, up and down quarks (and antiquarks), as well as leptons, an electron and an electron neutrino (and a positron with an electron antineutrino), form ordinary matter (and the rarely discovered antimatter). In the second generation, charm and strange quarks (and antiquarks), as well as leptons, muon and muon neutrino (and antimuon with muon antineutrino), having a larger mass (larger gravitational charge) are present. In the third generation there are true and charming quarks (and antiquarks), as well as leptons taon and taon neutrino (and antitaon with taon antineutrino). Fermions of the second and third generations do not participate in the formation of ordinary matter, are unstable and decay with the formation of fermions of the first generation.

Bosonic (gauge) fundamental fields can generate 18 types of bosons: gravitational field – gravitons, electromagnetic field – photons, weak interaction field – 3 types of “vions” 1, gluon field – 8 types of gluons, Higgs field – 5 types of Higgs bosons.

A physical vacuum in a sufficiently high-energy (excited) state is capable of generating many fundamental particles with significant energy, in the form of a mini-universe.

For the substance of the microworld, motion is reduced to:

to the spread, collision and transformation of elementary particles into each other;

the formation of atomic nuclei from protons and neutrons, their movement, collision and change;

the formation of atoms from atomic nuclei and electrons, their movement, collision and change, including the jumping of electrons from one atomic orbital to another and their separation from atoms, the addition of extra electrons;

the formation of molecules from atoms, their movement, collision and change, including the addition of new atoms, the release of atoms, the replacement of some atoms with others, and a change in the order of atoms relative to each other in a molecule.

For the substance of the macroworld and the megaworld, movement comes down to displacement, collision, deformation, destruction, unification of various bodies, as well as to their most varied changes.

If the movement of a material object (quantized field or material object) is accompanied by a change only in its physical properties, for example, frequency or wavelength for a quantized field, instantaneous speed, temperature, electric charge for a material object, then such movement is referred to as a physical form. If the movement of a material object is accompanied by a change in its chemical properties, for example, solubility, flammability, acidity, then such movement is classified as a chemical form. If the movement concerns changes in objects of the megaworld (cosmic objects), then such movement is classified as an astronomical form. If the movement concerns changes in objects of the deep earth's shells (earth's interior), then such movement is classified as a geological form. If the movement concerns changes in the objects of the geographical shell, which unites all the surface shells of the earth, then such movement is classified as a geographical form. The movement of living bodies and their systems in the form of their various life manifestations is classified as biological form. The movement of material objects, accompanied by a change in socially significant properties with the obligatory participation of humans, for example, the mining of iron ore and the production of iron and steel, the cultivation of sugar beets and the production of sugar, is classified as a socially determined form of movement.

The movement of any material object cannot always be attributed to any one form. It is complex and diverse. Even the physical motion inherent in material objects from the quantized field to bodies can include several forms. For example, an elastic collision (collision) of two solids in the form of billiard balls includes a change in the position of the balls over time relative to each other and the table, and the rotation of the balls, and the friction of the balls on the surface of the table and the air, and the movement of particles of each ball, and a practically reversible change in the shape of the balls during an elastic collision, and exchange of kinetic energy with its partial conversion into internal energy of balls during an elastic collision, and heat transfer between balls, air and the surface of the table, and possible radioactive decay of nuclei of unstable isotopes contained in balls, and penetration of cosmic ray neutrinos through balls, etc. With development matter and the emergence of chemical, astronomical, geological, geographical, biological and socially determined material objects, forms of movement become more complex and more diverse. Thus, in chemical movement one can see both physical forms of movement and qualitatively new, not reducible to physical, chemical forms. In the movement of astronomical, geological, geographical, biological and socially determined objects, one can see both physical and chemical forms of movement, as well as qualitatively new, not reducible to physical and chemical, respectively astronomical, geological, geographical, biological or socially determined forms of movement. At the same time, the lower forms of motion of matter do not differ in material objects of varying degrees of complexity. For example, the physical movement of elementary particles, atomic nuclei and atoms does not differ among astronomical, geological, geographical, biological or socially determined material objects.

In the study of complex forms of movement, two extremes should be avoided. Firstly, the study of a complex form of movement cannot be reduced to simple forms of movement; a complex form of movement cannot be derived from simple ones. For example, biological movement cannot be derived only from physical and chemical forms of movement, while ignoring the biological forms of movement themselves. And secondly, you cannot limit yourself to studying only complex forms of movement, ignoring simple ones. For example, the study of biological movement well complements the study of the physical and chemical forms of movement that appear in this case.

2. The ability of matter to develop itself

As is known, the self-development of matter, and matter is capable of self-development, is characterized by a spontaneous, directed and irreversible step-by-step complication of the forms of moving matter.

The spontaneous self-development of matter means that the process of gradual complication of the forms of moving matter occurs by itself, naturally, without the participation of any unnatural or supernatural forces, the Creator, due to internal, natural reasons.

The direction of self-development of matter means a kind of canalization of the process of gradual complication of the forms of moving matter from one form that existed earlier to another form that appeared later: for any new form of moving matter one can find the previous form of moving matter that gave it its origin, and vice versa, for any previous form of moving matter, one can find a new form of moving matter that arose from it. Moreover, the previous form of moving matter always existed before the new form of moving matter that arose from it, the previous form is always older than the new form that arose from it. Thanks to the canalization of the self-development of moving matter, peculiar series of gradual complication of its forms arise, showing in which direction, as well as through which intermediate (transitional) forms it went historical development some form of moving matter.

The irreversibility of the self-development of matter means that the process of gradual complication of the forms of moving matter cannot go in the opposite direction, backwards: a new form of moving matter cannot give rise to a previous form of moving matter from which it arose, but it can become a previous form for new forms. And if suddenly any new form of moving matter turns out to be very similar to one of the forms that preceded it, this will not mean that moving matter began to self-develop in the opposite direction: the previous form of moving matter appeared much earlier, and the new form of moving matter, even and very similar to it, appeared much later and is, although similar, but a fundamentally different form of moving matter.

3. Communication and interaction of material objects

The inherent properties of matter are connection and interaction, which are the cause of its movement. Because connection and interaction are the cause of the movement of matter, therefore connection and interaction, like movement, are universal, i.e., inherent in all material objects, regardless of their nature, origin and complexity. All phenomena in the material world are determined (in the sense of being conditioned) by natural material connections and interactions, as well as objective laws of nature, reflecting the patterns of connection and interaction. “In this sense, there is nothing supernatural and absolutely opposed to matter in the world.” 1 Interaction, like movement, is a form of being (existence) of matter.

The existence of all material objects is manifested in interaction. For any material object to exist means to somehow manifest itself in relation to other material objects, interacting with them, being in objective connections and relationships with them. If a hypothetical material “object that would not manifest itself in any way in relation to some other material objects, would not be connected with them in any way, would not interact with them, then it “would not exist for these other material objects. “But our assumption about him also could not be based on anything, since due to the lack of interaction we would have zero information about him.” 2

Interaction is the process of mutual influence of some material objects on others with the exchange of energy. The interaction of material objects can be direct, for example, in the form of a collision (impact) of two solid bodies. Or it can happen at a distance. In this case, the interaction of material objects is ensured by the bosonic (gauge) fundamental fields associated with them. A change in one material object causes excitation (deviation, perturbation, fluctuation) of the corresponding bosonic (gauge) fundamental field associated with it, and this excitation propagates in the form of a wave with a finite speed not exceeding the speed of light in vacuum (almost 300 thousand km/ With). The interaction of material objects at a distance, according to the quantum-field mechanism of interaction transfer, is of an exchange nature, since carrier particles transfer the interaction in the form of quanta of the corresponding bosonic (gauge) fundamental field. Various bosons, as interaction carrier particles, are excitations (deviations, perturbations, fluctuations) of the corresponding bosonic (gauge) fundamental fields: during emission and absorption by a material object they are real, and during propagation they are virtual.

It turns out that in any case, the interaction of material objects, even at a distance, is short-range action, since it is carried out without any gaps or voids.

The interaction of a particle with an antiparticle of a substance is accompanied by their annihilation, i.e., their transformation into the corresponding fermion (spinor) fundamental field. In this case, their mass (gravitational energy) is converted into the energy of the corresponding fermionic (spinor) fundamental field.

Virtual particles of the excited (deviating, disturbing, “trembling”) physical vacuum can interact with real particles, as if enveloping them, accompanying them in the form of so-called quantum foam. For example, as a result of the interaction of the electrons of an atom with virtual particles of the physical vacuum, a certain shift in their energy levels in the atoms occurs, and the electrons themselves perform oscillatory movements with a small amplitude.

There are four types of fundamental interactions: gravitational, electromagnetic, weak and strong.

“Gravitational interaction manifests itself in the mutual attraction... of material objects that have mass” 1 at rest, that is, material objects, at any large distances. It is assumed that the excited physical vacuum, which generates many fundamental particles, is capable of manifesting gravitational repulsion. Gravitational interaction is carried by gravitons of the gravitational field. The gravitational field connects bodies and particles with rest mass. No medium is required for the propagation of a gravitational field in the form of gravitational waves (virtual gravitons). Gravitational interaction is the weakest in its strength, therefore it is insignificant in the microworld due to the insignificance of particle masses; in the macroworld its manifestation is noticeable and it causes, for example, the fall of bodies to the Earth, and in the megaworld it plays a leading role due to the enormous masses of bodies in the megaworld and it ensures, for example, the rotation of the Moon and artificial satellites around the Earth; the formation and movement of planets, planetoids, comets and other bodies in the Solar System and its integrity; the formation and movement of stars in galaxies - giant star systems, including up to hundreds of billions of stars, connected by mutual gravity and common origin, as well as their integrity; the integrity of galaxy clusters - systems of relatively closely spaced galaxies connected by gravitational forces; the integrity of the Metagalaxy - the system of all known clusters of galaxies connected by gravitational forces, as a studied part of the Universe, the integrity of the entire Universe. Gravitational interaction determines the concentration of matter scattered in the Universe and its inclusion in new development cycles.

“Electromagnetic interaction is caused by electric charges and is transmitted” 1 by photons of the electromagnetic field over any large distances. An electromagnetic field binds bodies and particles that have electrical charges. Moreover, stationary electric charges are connected only by the electric component of the electromagnetic field in the form electric field, and moving electric charges are connected by both the electric and magnetic components of the electromagnetic field. For the propagation of an electromagnetic field in the form of electromagnetic waves, no additional medium is required, since “a changing magnetic field generates an alternating electric field, which, in turn, is a source of an alternating magnetic field” 2. “Electromagnetic interaction can manifest itself both as attraction (between unlike charges) and as repulsion (between” 3 like charges). Electromagnetic interaction is much stronger than gravitational interaction. It manifests itself both in the microcosm and in the macrocosm and megaworld, but the leading role belongs to it in the macrocosm. Electromagnetic interaction ensures the interaction of electrons with nuclei. Interatomic and intermolecular interaction is electromagnetic, thanks to it, for example, molecules exist and are carried out chemical form movements of matter, bodies exist and are determined by them states of aggregation, elasticity, friction, surface tension of liquid, vision functions. Thus, electromagnetic interaction ensures the stability of atoms, molecules and macroscopic bodies.

Elementary particles having a rest mass participate in weak interaction; it is carried by “vions” of 4 gauge fields. Weak interaction fields connect various elementary particles with rest mass. The weak interaction is much weaker than the electromagnetic force, but stronger than the gravitational force. Due to its short action, it manifests itself only in the microcosm, causing, for example, the majority of self-disintegrations of elementary particles (for example, a free neutron self-disintegrates with the participation of a negatively charged gauge boson into a proton, electron and electron antineutrino, sometimes this also produces a photon), the interaction of neutrinos with the rest of the substance.

Strong interaction manifests itself in the mutual attraction of hadrons, which include quark structures, for example, two-quark mesons and three-quark nucleons. It is transmitted by gluons of gluon fields. Gluon fields bind hadrons. This is the strongest interaction, but due to its short action it manifests itself only in the microcosm, ensuring, for example, the connection of quarks in nucleons, the connection of nucleons in atomic nuclei, ensuring their stability. The strong interaction is 1000 times stronger than the electromagnetic interaction and does not allow similarly charged protons united in the nucleus to fly away. Thermonuclear reactions, in which several nuclei combine into one, are also possible due to the strong interaction. Natural thermonuclear reactors are the stars who create everything chemical elements heavier than hydrogen. Heavy multinucleon nuclei become unstable and fission, because their sizes already exceed the distance at which the strong interaction manifests itself.

"As a result experimental research interactions of elementary particles ... it was discovered that at high collision energies of protons - about 100 GeV - ... the weak and electromagnetic interactions do not differ - they can be considered as a single electroweak interaction.” 1 It is assumed that “at an energy of 10 15 GeV they are joined by a strong interaction, and at” 2 “even higher energies of interaction of particles (up to 10 19 GeV) or at an extremely high temperature of matter, all four fundamental interactions are characterized by the same strength, i.e. represent one interaction" 3 in the form of a "superpower". Perhaps such high-energy conditions existed at the beginning of the development of the Universe, which emerged from a physical vacuum. In the process of further expansion of the Universe, accompanied by rapid cooling of the resulting matter, the integral interaction was first divided into electroweak, gravitational and strong, and then the electroweak interaction was divided into electromagnetic and weak, i.e., into four fundamentally different interactions.

BIBLIOGRAPHY:

Karpenkov, S. Kh. Basic concepts of natural science [Text]: textbook. manual for universities / S. Kh. Karpenkov. – 2nd ed., revised. and additional – M.: Academic Project, 2002. – 368 p.

Concepts of modern natural science [Text]: textbook. for universities / Ed. V. N. Lavrinenko, V. P. Ratnikova. – 3rd ed., revised. and additional – M.: UNITY-DANA, 2005. – 317 p.

Philosophical problems of natural science [Text]: textbook. manual for graduate students and students of philosophy. and natural fak. un-tov / Ed. S. T. Melyukhina. – M.: graduate School, 1985. – 400 p.

Tsyupka, V.P. Natural scientific picture of the world: concepts of modern natural science [Text]: textbook. allowance / V. P. Tsyupka. – Belgorod: IPK NRU “BelSU”, 2012. – 144 p.

Tsyupka, V. P. Concepts of modern physics that make up the modern physical picture of the world [Electronic resource] // Scientific electronic archive Russian Academy Natural sciences: correspondence. electron. scientific conf. “Concepts of modern natural science or the natural scientific picture of the world” URL: http://site/article/6315(posted: 10/31/2011)

Yandex. Dictionaries. [Electronic resource] URL: http://slovari.yandex.ru/

1Karpenkov S. Kh. Basic concepts of natural science. M. Academic Project. 2002. P. 60.

2Philosophical problems of natural science. M. Higher school. 1985. P. 181.

3Karpenkov S. Kh. Basic concepts of natural science... P. 60.

1Karpenkov S. Kh. Basic concepts of natural science... P. 79.

1Karpenkov S. Kh.

1Philosophical problems of natural science... P. 178.

2Ibid. P. 191.

1Karpenkov S. Kh. Basic concepts of natural science... P. 67.

1Karpenkov S. Kh. Basic concepts of natural science... P. 68.

3Philosophical problems of natural science... P. 195.

4Karpenkov S. Kh. Basic concepts of natural science... P. 69.

1Karpenkov S. Kh. Basic concepts of natural science... P. 70.

2Concepts of modern natural science. M. UNITY-DANA. 2005. P. 119.

3Karpenkov S. Kh. Basic concepts of natural science... P. 71.

Tsyupka V.P. ON THE UNDERSTANDING OF THE MOVEMENT OF MATTER, ITS ABILITY TO SELF-DEVELOPMENT, AND ALSO THE COMMUNICATION AND INTERACTION OF MATERIAL OBJECTS IN MODERN NATURAL SCIENCE // Scientific electronic archive.
URL: (access date: 03/17/2020).

±1 1 80,4 Weak interaction Z 0 0 1 91,2 Weak interaction Gluon 0 1 0 Strong interaction Higgs boson 0 0 ≈125.09±0.24 Inert mass

Generation		Quarks with charge (+2/3)				Quarks with charge (−1/3)
			Quark/antiquark symbol	Mass (MeV)		Name/flavor of quark/antiquark	Quark/antiquark symbol	Mass (MeV)
1		u-quark (up-quark) / anti-u-quark	$u\; /\; \backslash ,\; \backslash overline(u)$	from 1.5 to 3		d-quark (down-quark) / anti-d-quark	$d\; /\; \backslash ,\; \backslash overline(d)$	4.79±0.07
2		c-quark (charm-quark) / anti-c-quark	$c\; /\; \backslash ,\; \backslash overline(c)$	1250 ± 90		s-quark (strange quark) / anti-s-quark	$s\; /\; \backslash ,\; \backslash overline(s)$	95 ± 25
3		t-quark (top-quark) / anti-t-quark	$t\; /\; \backslash ,\; \backslash overline(t)$	174 200 ± 3300		b-quark (bottom-quark) / anti-b-quark	$b\; /\; \backslash ,\; \backslash overline(b)$	4200±70

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• S. A. Slavatinsky// Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology (Dolgoprudny, Moscow region)
• Slavatinsky S.A. // SOZH, 2001, No. 2, p. 62–68 archive web.archive.org/web/20060116134302/journal.issep.rssi.ru/annot.php?id=S1176
• // nuclphys.sinp.msu.ru
• // second-physics.ru
• //physics.ru
• // nature.web.ru
• // nature.web.ru
• // nature.web.ru

Fundamental particles Composite particles Connections fundamental and/or composite particles Regular Unusual Other classifications particles

Excerpt characterizing the Fundamental Particle

The next day he woke up late. Renewing the impressions of the past, he remembered first of all that today he had to introduce himself to Emperor Franz, he remembered the Minister of War, the courteous Austrian adjutant, Bilibin and the conversation of yesterday evening. Fully dressed dress uniform, which he had not worn for a long time, for a trip to the palace, he, fresh, lively and handsome, with his arm tied, entered Bilibin’s office. There were four gentlemen of the diplomatic corps in the office. Bolkonsky was familiar with Prince Ippolit Kuragin, who was the secretary of the embassy; Bilibin introduced him to others.
The gentlemen who visited Bilibin, secular, young, rich and cheerful people, formed a separate circle both in Vienna and here, which Bilibin, who was the head of this circle, called ours, les nftres. This circle, which consisted almost exclusively of diplomats, apparently had its own interests that had nothing to do with war and politics, interests of high society, relations with certain women and the clerical side of the service. These gentlemen, apparently, willingly accepted Prince Andrei into their circle as one of their own (an honor they did to few). Out of politeness, and as a subject for entering into conversation, he was asked several questions about the army and the battle, and the conversation again crumbled into inconsistent, cheerful jokes and gossip.
“But it’s especially good,” said one, telling the failure of a fellow diplomat, “what’s especially good is that the chancellor directly told him that his appointment to London was a promotion, and that he should look at it that way.” Do you see his figure at the same time?...
“But what’s worse, gentlemen, I give you Kuragin: the man is in misfortune, and this Don Juan, this terrible man, is taking advantage of it!”
Prince Hippolyte was lying in a Voltaire chair, his legs crossed over the arm. He laughed.
“Parlez moi de ca, [Come on, come on,]” he said.
- Oh, Don Juan! Oh snake! – voices were heard.
“You don’t know, Bolkonsky,” Bilibin turned to Prince Andrei, “that all the horrors French army(I almost said - the Russian army) - nothing compared to what this man did between women.
“La femme est la compagne de l"homme, [A woman is a man’s friend],” said Prince Hippolyte and began to look through the lorgnette at his raised legs.
Bilibin and ours burst out laughing, looking into Ippolit’s eyes. Prince Andrei saw that this Ippolit, whom he (had to admit) was almost jealous of his wife, was a buffoon in this society.
“No, I must treat you to Kuragin,” Bilibin said quietly to Bolkonsky. – He is charming when he talks about politics, you need to see this importance.
He sat down next to Hippolytus and, gathering folds on his forehead, began a conversation with him about politics. Prince Andrei and others surrounded both.
“Le cabinet de Berlin ne peut pas exprimer un sentiment d" alliance,” began Hippolyte, looking at everyone significantly, “sans exprimer... comme dans sa derieniere note... vous comprenez... vous comprenez... et puis si sa Majeste l"Empereur ne deroge pas au principe de notre alliance... [The Berlin cabinet cannot express its opinion on the alliance without expressing... as in its last note... you understand... you understand... however, if His Majesty the Emperor does not change the essence of our alliance...]
“Attendez, je n"ai pas fini...,” he said to Prince Andrei, grabbing his hand. “Je suppose que l”intervention sera plus forte que la non intervention.” Et...” He paused. – On ne pourra pas imputer a la fin de non recevoir notre depeche du 28 novembre. Voila comment tout cela finira. [Wait, I haven't finished. I think that intervention will be stronger than non-intervention. And... It is impossible to consider the matter over if our dispatch of November 28 is not accepted. How will this all end?]
And he let go of Bolkonsky’s hand, indicating that he had now completely finished.
“Demosthenes, je te reconnais au caillou que tu as cache dans ta bouche d"or! [Demosthenes, I recognize you by the pebble that you hide in your golden lips!] - said Bilibin, whose cap of hair moved on his head with pleasure .
Everyone laughed. Hippolytus laughed loudest of all. He apparently suffered, was suffocating, but could not resist the wild laughter that stretched his always motionless face.
“Well, gentlemen,” said Bilibin, “Bolkonsky is my guest in the house and here in Brunn, and I want to treat him, as much as I can, to all the joys of life here.” If we were in Brunn, it would be easy; but here, dans ce vilain trou morave [in this nasty Moravian hole], it is more difficult, and I ask you all for help. Il faut lui faire les honneurs de Brunn. [We need to show him Brunn.] You take over the theater, I – society, you, Hippolytus, of course – women.
– We need to show him Amelie, she’s lovely! - said one of ours, kissing the tips of his fingers.
“In general, this bloodthirsty soldier,” said Bilibin, “should be converted to more humane views.”
“I’m unlikely to take advantage of your hospitality, gentlemen, and now it’s time for me to go,” Bolkonsky said, looking at his watch.
- Where?
- To the emperor.
- ABOUT! O! O!
- Well, goodbye, Bolkonsky! Goodbye, prince; “Come to dinner earlier,” voices were heard. - We are taking care of you.
“Try to praise the order in the delivery of provisions and routes as much as possible when you speak with the emperor,” said Bilibin, escorting Bolkonsky to the front hall.
“And I would like to praise, but I can’t, as much as I know,” Bolkonsky answered smiling.
- Well, in general, talk as much as possible. His passion is audiences; but he himself does not like to speak and does not know how, as you will see.

These three particles (as well as others described below) are mutually attracted and repelled according to their charges, of which there are only four types according to the number of fundamental forces of nature. The charges can be arranged in decreasing order of the corresponding forces as follows: color charge (forces of interaction between quarks); electric charge (electric and magnetic forces); weak charge (forces in some radioactive processes); finally, mass (gravitational force, or gravitational interaction). The word "color" here has nothing to do with the color of visible light; it is simply a characteristic of a strong charge and the greatest forces.

Charges are saved, i.e. charge entering the system equal to charge, coming out of it. If the total electric charge of a certain number of particles before their interaction is equal to, say, 342 units, then after the interaction, regardless of its result, it will be equal to 342 units. This also applies to other charges: color (strong interaction charge), weak and mass (mass). Particles differ in their charges: in essence, they “are” these charges. Charges are like a “certificate” of the right to respond to the appropriate force. Thus, only colored particles are affected by color forces, only electrically charged particles are affected by electric forces, etc. The properties of a particle are determined by the greatest force acting on it. Only quarks are carriers of all charges and, therefore, are subject to the action of all forces, among which the dominant one is color. Electrons have all charges except color, and the dominant force for them is the electromagnetic force.

The most stable in nature are, as a rule, neutral combinations of particles in which the charge of particles of one sign is compensated by the total charge of particles of the other sign. This corresponds to the minimum energy of the entire system. (In the same way, two bar magnets are arranged in a line, with North Pole one of them faces the south pole of the other, which corresponds to the minimum energy of the magnetic field.) Gravity is an exception to this rule: negative mass does not exist. There are no bodies that fall upward.

TYPES OF MATTER

Ordinary matter is formed from electrons and quarks, grouped into objects that are neutral in color and then in electrical charge. The color power is neutralized, as will be discussed in more detail below, when the particles are combined into triplets. (Hence the term “color” itself, taken from optics: three primary colors when mixed produce white.) Thus, quarks for which the color strength is the main one form triplets. But quarks, and they are divided into u-quarks (from the English up - top) and d-quarks (from the English down - bottom), also have an electric charge equal to u-quark and for d-quark. Two u-quark and one d-quarks give an electric charge of +1 and form a proton, and one u-quark and two d-quarks give zero electric charge and form a neutron.

Stable protons and neutrons, attracted to each other by the residual color forces of interaction between their constituent quarks, form a color-neutral atomic nucleus. But nuclei carry a positive electrical charge and, attracting negative electrons that orbit around the nucleus like planets orbiting the Sun, tend to form a neutral atom. Electrons in their orbits are removed from the nucleus at distances tens of thousands of times greater than the radius of the nucleus - evidence that the electrical forces holding them are much weaker than nuclear ones. Thanks to the power of color interaction, 99.945% of an atom's mass is contained in its nucleus. Weight u- And d-quarks are about 600 times the mass of an electron. Therefore, electrons are much lighter and more mobile than nuclei. Their movement in matter is caused by electrical phenomena.

There are several hundred natural varieties of atoms (including isotopes), differing in the number of neutrons and protons in the nucleus and, accordingly, in the number of electrons in their orbits. The simplest is the hydrogen atom, consisting of a nucleus in the form of a proton and a single electron revolving around it. All “visible” matter in nature consists of atoms and partially “disassembled” atoms, which are called ions. Ions are atoms that, having lost (or gained) several electrons, have become charged particles. Matter consisting almost entirely of ions is called plasma. Stars that burn due to thermonuclear reactions occurring in the centers consist mainly of plasma, and since stars are the most common form of matter in the Universe, we can say that the entire Universe consists mainly of plasma. More precisely, stars are predominantly fully ionized hydrogen gas, i.e. a mixture of individual protons and electrons, and therefore, almost the entire visible Universe consists of it.

This is visible matter. But there is also invisible matter in the Universe. And there are particles that act as force carriers. There are antiparticles and excited states of some particles. All this leads to a clearly excessive abundance of “elementary” particles. In this abundance one can find an indication of the actual, true nature of elementary particles and the forces acting between them. According to the most recent theories, particles may be essentially extended geometric objects - “strings” in ten-dimensional space.

The invisible world.

The Universe contains not only visible matter (but also black holes and “ dark matter", such as cold planets that become visible if illuminated). There is also truly invisible matter that permeates all of us and the entire Universe every second. It is a fast-moving gas of particles of one type - electron neutrinos.

An electron neutrino is a partner of an electron, but has no electrical charge. Neutrinos carry only a so-called weak charge. Their rest mass is, in all likelihood, zero. But they interact with the gravitational field because they have kinetic energy E, which corresponds to the effective mass m, according to Einstein's formula E = mc 2 where c– speed of light.

The key role of the neutrino is that it contributes to the transformation And-quarks in d-quarks, as a result of which a proton turns into a neutron. Neutrinos act as the "carburetor needle" for stellar fusion reactions, in which four protons (hydrogen nuclei) combine to form a helium nucleus. But since the helium nucleus does not consist of four protons, but of two protons and two neutrons, for such nuclear fusion it is necessary that two And-quarks turned into two d-quark. The intensity of the transformation determines how quickly the stars will burn. And the transformation process is determined by weak charges and weak interaction forces between particles. Wherein And-quark (electric charge +2/3, weak charge +1/2), interacting with an electron (electric charge - 1, weak charge –1/2), forms d-quark (electric charge –1/3, weak charge –1/2) and electron neutrino (electric charge 0, weak charge +1/2). The color charges (or just colors) of the two quarks cancel out in this process without the neutrino. The role of the neutrino is to carry away the uncompensated weak charge. Therefore, the rate of transformation depends on how weak the weak forces are. If they were weaker than they are, the stars would not burn at all. If they were stronger, the stars would have burned out long ago.

What about neutrinos? Because these particles interact extremely weakly with other matter, they almost immediately leave the stars in which they were born. All stars shine, emitting neutrinos, and neutrinos shine through our bodies and the entire Earth day and night. So they wander around the Universe until they perhaps enter into a new interaction STARS).

Carriers of interactions.

What causes forces acting between particles at a distance? Modern physics answers: due to the exchange of other particles. Imagine two speed skaters throwing a ball around. By imparting momentum to the ball when thrown and receiving momentum with the received ball, both receive a push in a direction away from each other. This can explain the emergence of repulsive forces. But in quantum mechanics, which considers phenomena in the microworld, unusual stretching and delocalization of events are allowed, which leads to the seemingly impossible: one of the skaters throws the ball in the direction from different, but that one nonetheless Maybe catch this ball. It is not difficult to imagine that if this were possible (and in the world of elementary particles it is possible), attraction would arise between the skaters.

The particles, due to the exchange of which the interaction forces between the four “particles of matter” discussed above, are called gauge particles. Each of the four interactions – strong, electromagnetic, weak and gravitational – has its own set of gauge particles. The carrier particles of the strong interaction are gluons (there are only eight of them). A photon is a carrier of electromagnetic interaction (there is only one, and we perceive photons as light). The carrier particles of the weak interaction are intermediate vector bosons (they were discovered in 1983 and 1984 W + -, W- - bosons and neutral Z-boson). The carrier particle of gravitational interaction is the still hypothetical graviton (there should be only one). All these particles, except for the photon and graviton, which can travel infinitely long distances, exist only in the process of exchange between material particles. Photons fill the Universe with light, and gravitons fill gravitational waves(not yet reliably discovered).

A particle capable of emitting gauge particles is said to be surrounded by a corresponding field of forces. Thus, electrons capable of emitting photons are surrounded by electrical and magnetic fields, as well as weak and gravitational fields. Quarks are also surrounded by all these fields, but also by the strong interaction field. Particles with a color charge in the field of color forces are affected by the color force. The same applies to other forces of nature. Therefore, we can say that the world consists of matter (material particles) and field (gauge particles). More about this below.

Antimatter.

Each particle has an antiparticle, with which the particle can mutually annihilate, i.e. "annihilate", resulting in the release of energy. “Pure” energy in itself, however, does not exist; As a result of annihilation, new particles (for example, photons) appear that carry away this energy.

In most cases, an antiparticle has properties opposite to the corresponding particle: if a particle moves to the left under the influence of strong, weak or electromagnetic fields, then its antiparticle will move to the right. In short, the antiparticle has opposite signs of all charges (except the mass charge). If a particle is composite, such as a neutron, then its antiparticle consists of components with opposite signs of charges. Thus, an antielectron has an electric charge of +1, a weak charge of +1/2 and is called a positron. Antineutron consists of And-antiquarks with electric charge –2/3 and d-antiquarks with electric charge +1/3. True neutral particles are their own antiparticles: the antiparticle of a photon is a photon.

According to modern theoretical concepts, each particle existing in nature should have its own antiparticle. And many antiparticles, including positrons and antineutrons, were indeed obtained in the laboratory. The consequences of this are extremely important and underlie all experimental particle physics. According to the theory of relativity, mass and energy are equivalent, and under certain conditions energy can be converted into mass. Since charge is conserved, and the charge of vacuum (empty space) is zero, any pairs of particles and antiparticles (with zero net charge) can emerge from the vacuum, like rabbits from a magician's hat, as long as there is enough energy to create their mass.

Generations of particles.

Accelerator experiments have shown that the quartet of material particles is repeated at least twice at higher mass values. In the second generation, the place of the electron is taken by the muon (with a mass approximately 200 times greater than the mass of the electron, but with the same values ​​of all other charges), the place of the electron neutrino is taken by the muon (which accompanies the muon in weak interactions in the same way as the electron is accompanied by the electron neutrino), place And-quark occupies With-quark ( charmed), A d-quark – s-quark ( strange). In the third generation, the quartet consists of a tau lepton, a tau neutrino, t-quark and b-quark.

Weight t-a quark is about 500 times the mass of the lightest – d-quark. It has been experimentally established that there are only three types of light neutrinos. Thus, the fourth generation of particles either does not exist at all, or the corresponding neutrinos are very heavy. This is consistent with cosmological data, according to which no more than four types of light neutrinos can exist.

In experiments with high-energy particles, the electron, muon, tau lepton and corresponding neutrinos act as isolated particles. They do not carry a color charge and enter into only weak and electromagnetic interactions. Collectively they are called leptons.

Table 2. GENERATIONS OF FUNDAMENTAL PARTICLES
Particle	Rest mass, MeV/ With 2	Electric charge	Color charge	Weak charge
SECOND GENERATION
With-quark	1500	+2/3	Red, green or blue	+1/2
s-quark	500	–1/3	Same	–1/2
Muon neutrino		0	0	+1/2
Muon	106	0	0	–1/2
THIRD GENERATION
t-quark	30000–174000	+2/3	Red, green or blue	+1/2
b-quark	4700	–1/3	Same	–1/2
Tau neutrino		0	0	+1/2
Tau	1777	–1	0	–1/2

Quarks, under the influence of color forces, combine into strongly interacting particles that dominate most high-energy physics experiments. Such particles are called hadrons. They include two subclasses: baryons(such as a proton and a neutron), which are made up of three quarks, and mesons, consisting of a quark and an antiquark. In 1947, the first meson, called the pion (or pi-meson), was discovered in cosmic rays, and for some time it was believed that the exchange of these particles was the main cause of nuclear forces. Omega-minus hadrons, discovered in 1964 at Brookhaven National Laboratory (USA), and the JPS particle ( J/y-meson), discovered simultaneously at Brookhaven and at the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center (also in the USA) in 1974. The existence of the omega minus particle was predicted by M. Gell-Mann in his so-called “ S.U. 3 theory" (another name is the "eight-fold path"), in which the possibility of the existence of quarks was first suggested (and this name was given to them). A decade later, the discovery of the particle J/y confirmed the existence With-quark and finally made everyone believe in both the quark model and the theory that united electromagnetic and weak forces ( see below).

Particles of the second and third generation are no less real than the first. True, having arisen, in millionths or billionths of a second they decay into ordinary particles of the first generation: electron, electron neutrino, and also And- And d-quarks. The question of why there are several generations of particles in nature still remains a mystery.

Different generations of quarks and leptons are often spoken of (which, of course, is somewhat eccentric) as different “flavors” of particles. The need to explain them is called the “flavor” problem.

BOSONS AND FERMIONS, FIELD AND MATTER

One of the fundamental differences between particles is the difference between bosons and fermions. All particles are divided into these two main classes. Identical bosons can overlap or overlap, but identical fermions cannot. Superposition occurs (or does not occur) in the discrete energy states into which quantum mechanics divides nature. These states are like separate cells into which particles can be placed. So, you can put as many identical bosons as you like into one cell, but only one fermion.

As an example, consider such cells, or “states,” for an electron orbiting the nucleus of an atom. Unlike planets solar system, the electron, according to the laws of quantum mechanics, cannot circulate in any elliptical orbit; for it there is only a discrete series of allowed “states of motion.” Sets of such states, grouped according to the distance from the electron to the nucleus, are called orbitals. In the first orbital there are two states with different angular momentum and, therefore, two allowed cells, and in higher orbitals there are eight or more cells.

Since the electron is a fermion, each cell can only contain one electron. Very important consequences follow from this - all of chemistry, since the chemical properties of substances are determined by the interactions between the corresponding atoms. If you go along periodic table elements from one atom to another in the order of increasing by one the number of protons in the nucleus (the number of electrons will also increase accordingly), then the first two electrons will occupy the first orbital, the next eight will be located in the second, etc. This consistent change in the electronic structure of atoms from element to element determines the patterns in their chemical properties.

If electrons were bosons, then all the electrons in an atom could occupy the same orbital, corresponding to the minimum energy. In this case, the properties of all matter in the Universe would be completely different, and the Universe in the form in which we know it would be impossible.

All leptons - electron, muon, tau lepton and their corresponding neutrinos - are fermions. The same can be said about quarks. Thus, all particles that form “matter”, the main filler of the Universe, as well as invisible neutrinos, are fermions. This is quite significant: fermions cannot combine, so the same applies to objects in the material world.

At the same time, all the “gauge particles” that are exchanged between interacting material particles and which create a field of forces ( see above), are bosons, which is also very important. So, for example, many photons can be in the same state, forming a magnetic field around a magnet or an electric field around an electric charge. Thanks to this, laser is also possible.

Spin.

The difference between bosons and fermions is associated with another characteristic of elementary particles - spin. Surprisingly, all fundamental particles have their own angular momentum or, more simply put, rotate around their own axis. Momentum - characteristic rotational movement, as well as the total impulse – translational. In any interaction, angular momentum and momentum are conserved.

In the microcosm, the angular momentum is quantized, i.e. takes discrete values. In suitable units of measurement, leptons and quarks have a spin of 1/2, and gauge particles have a spin of 1 (except for the graviton, which has not yet been observed experimentally, but theoretically should have a spin of 2). Since leptons and quarks are fermions, and gauge particles are bosons, we can assume that “fermionicity” is associated with spin 1/2, and “bosonicity” is associated with spin 1 (or 2). Indeed, both experiment and theory confirm that if a particle has a half-integer spin, then it is a fermion, and if it has an integer spin, then it is a boson.

GAUGE THEORIES AND GEOMETRY

In all cases, the forces arise due to the exchange of bosons between fermions. Thus, the color force of interaction between two quarks (quarks - fermions) arises due to the exchange of gluons. A similar exchange occurs constantly in protons, neutrons and atomic nuclei. Similarly, the photons exchanged between electrons and quarks create the electrical attractive forces that hold the electrons in the atom, and the intermediate vector bosons exchanged between leptons and quarks create the weak interaction forces responsible for converting protons into neutrons at thermonuclear reactions in the stars.

The theory behind this exchange is elegant, simple, and probably correct. It is called gauge theory. But at present there are only independent gauge theories of strong, weak and electromagnetic interactions and a similar, although somewhat different, gauge theory of gravity. One of the most important physical problems is the reduction of these individual theories into a single and at the same time simple theory, in which they would all become different aspects a single reality - like the edges of a crystal.

Table 3. SOME HADRONS

Table 3. SOME HADRONS
Particle	Symbol	Quark composition *	Rest mass, MeV/ With 2	Electric charge
BARIONS
Proton	p	uud	938	+1
Neutron	n	udd	940	0
Omega minus	W –	sss	1672	–1
MESONS
Pi-plus	p +	u	140	+1
Pi minus	p –	du	140	–1
Fi	f	sє	1020	0
JP	J/y	cў	3100	0
Upsilon	Ў	b	9460	0
* Quark composition: u– top; d– lower; s- strange; c– enchanted; b- Beautiful. Antiques are indicated by a line above the letter.

The simplest and oldest of the gauge theories is the gauge theory of electromagnetic interaction. In it, the charge of an electron is compared (calibrated) with the charge of another electron distant from it. How can you compare charges? You can, for example, bring the second electron closer to the first and compare their interaction forces. But doesn't the charge of an electron change when it moves to another point in space? The only way to check is to send a signal from a near electron to a far one and see how it reacts. The signal is a gauge particle – a photon. To be able to test the charge on distant particles, a photon is needed.

Mathematically, this theory is extremely accurate and beautiful. All quantum electrodynamics follows from the “gauge principle” described above ( quantum theory electromagnetism), as well as Maxwell's theory of the electromagnetic field - one of the greatest scientific achievements of the 19th century.

Why is such a simple principle so fruitful? Apparently, it expresses a certain correlation between different parts of the Universe, allowing measurements to be made in the Universe. In mathematical terms, the field is interpreted geometrically as the curvature of some conceivable “internal” space. Measuring charge is measuring the total “internal curvature” around the particle. The gauge theories of the strong and weak interactions differ from the electromagnetic gauge theory only in the internal geometric “structure” of the corresponding charge. The question of where exactly this internal space is is sought to be answered by multidimensional unified field theories, which are not discussed here.

Table 4. FUNDAMENTAL INTERACTIONS
Interaction	Relative intensity at a distance of 10–13 cm	Radius of action	Interaction carrier	Carrier rest mass, MeV/ With 2	Spin the carrier
Strong	1		Gluon	0	1
Electro- magnetic	0,01	Ґ	Photon	0	1
Weak	10 –13		W +	80400	1
			W –	80400	1
			Z 0	91190	1
Gravita- tional	10 –38	Ґ	Graviton	0	2

Particle physics is not yet complete. It is still far from clear whether the available data is sufficient to fully understand the nature of particles and forces, as well as the true nature and dimension of space and time. Do we need experiments with energies of 10 15 GeV for this, or will the effort of thought be sufficient? No answer yet. But we can say with confidence that the final picture will be simple, elegant and beautiful. It is possible that there will not be so many fundamental ideas: the gauge principle, spaces of higher dimensions, collapse and expansion, and, above all, geometry.

Microworld structures

Previously, elementary particles were called particles that are part of an atom and cannot be broken down into more elementary components, namely electrons and nuclei.

Later it was found that nuclei consist of simpler particles - nucleons(protons and neutrons), which in turn consist of other particles. That's why elementary particles began to be considered tiny particles matter , excluding atoms and their nuclei .

To date, hundreds of elementary particles have been discovered, which requires their classification:

– by type of interaction

- by time of life

– largest back

Elementary particles are divided into the following groups:

Composite and fundamental (structureless) particles

Compound particles

Hadrons (heavy)– particles participating in all types of fundamental interactions. They consist of quarks and are divided, in turn, into: mesons– hadrons with integer spin, that is, they are bosons; baryons– hadrons with half-integer spin, that is, fermions. These, in particular, include the particles that make up the nucleus of an atom - proton and neutron, i.e. nucleons.

Fundamental (structureless) particles

Leptons (light)– fermions, which have the form of point particles (i.e., not consisting of anything) up to scales of the order of 10 − 18 m. They do not participate in strong interactions. Participation in electromagnetic interactions was experimentally observed only for charged leptons (electrons, muons, tau leptons) and was not observed for neutrinos.

Quarks– fractionally charged particles that make up hadrons. They were not observed in the free state.

Gauge bosons– particles through the exchange of which interactions are carried out:

– photon – a particle that carries electromagnetic interaction;

– eight gluons – particles that carry the strong interaction;

– three intermediate vector bosons W + , W− and Z 0, which tolerate weak interactions;

– graviton is a hypothetical particle that transfers gravitational interaction. The existence of gravitons, although not yet experimentally proven due to the weakness of gravitational interaction, is considered quite probable; however, the graviton is not included in the Standard Model of elementary particles.

According to modern ideas, to fundamental particles(or “true” elementary particles), which do not have an internal structure and finite dimensions, include:

Quarks and leptons

Particles that provide fundamental interactions: gravitons, photons, vector bosons, gluons.

Classification of elementary particles by lifetime:

- stable: particles whose lifetime is very long (in the limit it tends to infinity). These include electrons , protons , neutrino . Neutrons are also stable inside nuclei, but they are unstable outside the nucleus.

- unstable (quasi-stable): elementary particles are those particles that decay due to electromagnetic and weak interactions, and whose lifetime is more than 10–20 seconds. Such particles include free neutron (i.e. a neutron outside the nucleus of an atom)

- resonances (unstable, short-lived). Resonances include elementary particles that decay due to strong interactions. Their lifetime is less than 10 -20 seconds.

Classification of particles by participation in interactions:

- leptons : These include neutrons. All of them do not participate in the whirlpool of intranuclear interactions, i.e. are not subject to strong interactions. They participate in weak interaction, and those with an electric charge also participate in electromagnetic interaction

- hadrons : particles existing inside atomic nucleus and participating in strong interactions. The most famous of them are proton And neutron .

Known today six leptons :

In the same family as the electron are muons and tau particles, which are similar to the electron but more massive. Muons and tau particles are unstable and eventually decay into several other particles, including the electron

Three electrically neutral particles with zero (or close to zero, scientists have not yet decided on this point) mass, called neutrino . Each of the three neutrinos (electron neutrino, muon neutrino, tau neutrino) is paired with one of three types of particles of the electron family.

The most famous hadrons , protons and neutrinos there are hundreds of relatives, which are born in large numbers and immediately decay in the process of various nuclear reactions. With the exception of the proton, they are all unstable and can be classified according to the composition of the particles into which they decay:

If there is a proton among the final products of particle decay, then it is called baryon

If there is no proton among the decay products, then the particle is called meson .

The chaotic picture of the subatomic world, which became more complex with the discovery of each new hadron, gave way to a new picture with the advent of the concept of quarks. According to the quark model, all hadrons (but not leptons) consist of even more elementary particles - quarks. So baryons (in particular the proton) consist of three quarks, and mesons - from the pair quark - antiquark.