Formation of the Mongol state and Mongol conquests

1. Mongolia before the formation of the state.

2. Creation of the Mongolian state.

3. The main directions, reasons for success and consequences of the Mongol conquests.

1. Mongolia before the formation of the state

By the end of the 12th century, over a vast area from the Great Wall of China to Southern Siberia, from the upper reaches of the Irtysh to the Amur, several large alliances of Mongol tribes roamed.

Ethnonym " Mongol" in the shape of « mengu", "mengu-mo", "mengu-wa" - first found in Chinese chronicles of the Tang Dynasty. This is how the Chinese called the group of “barbarians” (all steppe peoples) who roamed their northern borders, which obviously reflected their self-name. The Chinese called the northern Mongolian tribes "black" Tatars , and nomads adjacent to the Great Wall of China "white" Tatars . There is also such a concept as "wild" Tatars, applicable to the hunting and fishing peoples who lived in the most remote northern regions of Mongolia. From this we can assume that during this period the Tatars dominated the steppe. The steppe peoples included nomads three tribes (Manchu, Mongolian, Turkic), but all these nomads called themselves general concept“Tatals”, hence “Tatars”. As we moved away from China, the influence of sedentary peoples on nomadic peoples had a weaker effect or was completely absent.

Since ancient times, the natural conditions of Mongolia (steppes, mountain pastures) determined the main occupation of the Mongols - nomadic cattle breeding, that is, the Mongols - nomadsnomads. In the steppes of Central Asia, nomadic cattle breeding emerged from the primitive complex agricultural, pastoral and hunting economy.

Chinese Chan Chun described the habitat of the Tatar-Mongols as “a gigantic valley, the dimensions of which are 7-8 months of travel in length and width, ... abounding in water and grass,” where people and herds “walk today, stand tomorrow, where there is water and grass.” In the 11th century The long period of drought ended. This contributed to a shift in the boundaries of the steppe zone to the south to the Gobi Desert, an increase in the number of livestock and especially the population.

The main element of Mongolian society was the clan led by the steppe aristocracy (bagaturs, noyons 3). The clan jointly owned nomadic lands and performed religious rituals. In the minds of most Mongols, the idea of ​​collective responsibility for each member of the clan was stable. Joint farming and migration was called smoking (the camp-kuren was set up around the yurt of the tribal elder and could number up to a thousand tents, i.e. families)

People from the clan who did not want to accept the rules of behavior and life within the group became "people of long will." These people united in organized detachments under the leadership of military leaders. “People of long will,” along with the Mongol clans, were a powerful force in the steppe.

The Mongols had tribal associations, which by that time were not so much ethnic as political communities. Each of these associations had its own leader - Khan . As a rule, the khans at this time were already hereditary rulers, although the electoral system of the era of military democracy continued to exist, when the khan as a military leader was chosen by representatives of the tribal aristocracy. Sources indicate that in the XI-XII centuries. In Mongolian society, the steppe nobility stood out - “noyons”, people of “white bone”. They bore special titles: “Bogatyr”, “Sharp Shooter”, “Strongman”, “Wise”, etc.

From the second half of the 12th century. The rivalry of individual aristocratic families for power, for the distribution of pastures, the removal of other people's herds and the abduction of brides of “someone else's bones” intensified. Iranian scientist, vizier of the Mongol Ilkhans, Rashid al-Din (12471318) reports: “each tribe had a sovereign and an emir. Most of the time they fought and fought with each other, quarreled and robbed each other."

As a result of tribal enmity, as well as China’s traditional policy of pitting nomads against each other to prevent their unification, robbery, theft, tyranny, lawlessness, and adultery became commonplace. Thus, the need for political unification became obvious.

Back at the end of the 12th century. Among the Mongols, Temujin (1154/1162(?) - August 25, 1227), the son of Khan Yesugei, stood out, who experienced many disasters after the death of his father: childhood in the struggle of small nomads; in his youth he was a prisoner in China, where he learned a lot, including learning about the weaknesses of the Celestial Empire. He gathered young warriors (“people of long will”) who formed horde(squad) and lived from the spoils of war. They fought with their neighbors and accepted into their ranks everyone who was ready to submit to their way of life. Soon all the peoples of the Mongols submitted to the horde, and Temujin was proclaimed at the kurultai in 1206 (year of the Tiger/Leopard) kaan , i.e. Genghis Khan (“Ocean Khan” - “Lord of the World”; in Turkic - Tenghis Khan).

On the issue of unification, 2 trends have emerged:

Most of the aristocracy preferred unification at the level tribal confederation while maintaining its real power on the ground. But this could not ensure socio-political stability, because tribal unions in Mongolia fell apart as quickly as they arose. The bearer of this trend was Jamukha , which was supported by the Tatars.

The trend towards strictly centralized state, whose supporter was Genghis Khan, supported by the Mongols.

In a difficult war, Genghis Khan defeated the Tatars, almost completely exterminating them. Jamukha was executed. He persuaded the steppe aristocracy to create a state. Then Genghis Khan began to unite the steppe people. The internal struggle was very fierce and more difficult for the Mongols than subsequent external conquests.

These were typical steppe wars, after which prisoners were boiled in cauldrons, “aligned to the axle of the cart,” and pregnant women had their bellies ripped open. In Mongolian legends about this struggle it is written: “The starry sky used to turn. They didn’t lie down on the bed here, the mother wide earth was shaking - that’s the kind of all-language strife that was going on.” Genghis Khan himself said that “the highest pleasure for a man is to defeat his enemies, drive them before him, take everything from them, see the faces of their loved ones in tears, squeeze their daughters and wives in his arms.”

2. Creation of the Mongolian state

In 1206, the history of Mongolian statehood began, which initially had an imperial tendency. The military character of the state was manifested in the oath taken to the Great Khan. The power of the Khan was figuratively manifested in the rituals that accompanied the accession to the power of the Great Khan: the closest nobles placed a sword in front of him, and he asked: “Is each of you ready to do what I command, to go where I send, to kill whom I Shall I order? The nobles answered: “Ready.” Then the khan said to them: “From now on, let the word of my mouth be my sword.”

The power of the Great Khan was also manifested in the fact that he was the ruler over the life, death and property of every subject.

Factors hindering the peaceful development of the state:

During the centralization process, nomadic cattle breeding declined, i.e. the basis of the economy. This pushed them to seize new herds and pastures from their neighbors.

The entire male population was mobilized into the army, trained in the art of war, and aimed at war as the most effective means of acquiring material well-being.

Nurturing plans for conquest, Genghis Khan, first of all, took up the military-administrative structure of the state.

The territory of Mongolia was divided into two parts: the left wing and the right wing, between which was the territory of Genghis Khan’s own nomadic camp. This division of territory dates back to the time of the Huns and other tribal associations - the ancestors of the Mongols. Their experience greatly influenced the process of organizing the Mongol Empire.

Each of the three large districts (right and left wings and center) was divided into “darkness” (10 thousand people), “thousands”, “hundreds” and “tens”. Territorial division corresponded to the principle of recruiting an army led by tens, sots, thousanders and temniks. Military leaders were appointed not on the basis of kinship or nobility (although both were always taken into account), but on the basis of the principle of meritocracy characteristic of early political structures, i.e. of the best warriors, which played a huge role in strengthening the combat capability of the army. At the head of the territories were the companions of Genghis Khan, nukers And noyons .

Thus, Genghis Khan, having previously shown himself to be an outstanding commander, now showed himself to be a talented organizer and politician. He turned the previously warring tribes into a single powerful horde, placing it on a solid basis. His inner and foreign policy was aimed at protecting the interests of the Noyon movement. The administrative system also served these purposes. Under Genghis Khan, the capital of the empire became the city of Karakorum, a center of crafts and trade.

Such a military-administrative structure of the state reflected the process of replacing former consanguineous ties with new administrative-territorial ones. Members of the former clan collectives turned into vassals dependent on the military leaders.

The positions of noyons (temniks, thousanders, centurions) were hereditary, but they did not have the right of ownership of the nomads and the population that roamed the given land (they could not transfer or sell).

Relatives and closest associates of Genghis Khan received inheritances and subjects for personal use. The latter were not included in the thousands and bore responsibilities only in favor of their masters.

Such a flexible system of government was brought to life by the peculiar conditions of the aristocracy, which sought enrichment through military adventures and made it possible for Genghis Khan to mobilize the required number of soldiers at any time.

In addition to the power of the khan, the Mongols were subject to a harsh ancient law Great Yase , which ordered each of the Horde members to observe the basic rules of behavior and attitude towards their neighbors: deception, failure to assist a comrade in war, discord between one’s own and any quarrels were especially severely punished.

Thus, the principles of the Mongol state laid down by Genghis Khan became the basis of the Mongol Empire. We can talk about " the dual nature of the “steppe empires” . From the outside, they looked like despotic conquering states, because... were created to obtain surplus product outside the steppe. From within, these empires remained based on tribal ties without taxation and exploitation of pastoralists. The strength of the ruler's power was based on his ability to organize military campaigns and redistribute income from trade, tribute and raids on neighboring peoples.

3. Main directions, reasons for success and consequences of the Mongol conquests.

The history of the Mongol state is a history of conquest. Reasons for the Mongol conquests:

The nomadic nobility lived by robbing their own people and neighboring peoples. Thus, robbery, primarily of non-Mongol peoples, is the main source of enrichment for the nobility and the main reason for the Mongol conquests. From the Great Wall of China to the Hungarian border there is a grassy-steppe expanse;

Genghis Khan was faced with the task of distracting the nobility from separatist tendencies, and keeping the created empire from rapid collapse. This could be achieved through the plunder of Eurasia;

Under the conditions of the Mongol state, it was necessary to divert the attention of the masses from the worsening situation. Thus, from sources you can find out that many Mongol warriors and herders did not have horses. A nomad without a horse in the conditions of the 13th-14th centuries was neither a warrior nor even a shepherd. The impoverishment of the overwhelming mass of the Mongols was a widespread phenomenon. At times, vagrancy was not only widespread among them, but also assumed enormous proportions.

In terms of the scale of expansion and consequences of the Tatar-Mongol invasion, it can only be compared with the invasion of the Huns.

With a relatively small army, Mongol expansion was carried out fan-out in 3 directions:

southeast - China, Korea, Japan, Indochina, Java Island.

southwestern - Central Asia, Iran, Caucasus, Arab Caliphate.

northwestern - Rus', Europe.

Genghis Khan struck the first blow in a southerly direction , to the state of the Tanguts, Xi-Xia and Jin. The first blows to the Tangut state were struck in 1205; in 1207 and 1209 - the second and third campaigns against the Tanguts. As a result of the victories of the Mongols, the Tanguts were forced to make peace with them and pay a large indemnity. Since 1211, campaigns against the Jurchens (Beijing was taken in 1215).

In 1218 it was declared western campaign, which was preceded by victories over the Kara-Khitans and tribes of Southern Siberia. The main goals of the western campaign were rich territories and cities Central Asia(state of Khorezmshah, Bukhara, Samarkand), which was conquered in 1222. The development of this direction led the Mongols to the Caucasus, to the southern Russian steppes.

Thus, Northern China (1211-1234) and Central Asia were hit hardest when Mongol expansion was on the rise. Northern China literally turned into a desert (a contemporary wrote: “Traces of terrible devastation were visible everywhere, the bones of the dead made up entire mountains: the soil was loose from human fat, the rotting of the corpses caused disease”).

IN Central Asia everything that resisted was subjected to “general massacre” (“katliamm”). Rashid ad-Din wrote that Genghis Khan gave the order that every living creature of any kind of people and any breed of cattle, wild animals and birds should be killed, not a single prisoner or any booty should be taken. Here, most of the cities were subjected to a “general massacre.”

By 1233 some areas had been conquered Iran and at about the same time -

1236 - conquest completed Caucasus;

1256 - Mongols re-invaded Iran as a result of which the valleys of Western Asia turned into desert;

1258 - fell Abbasid Caliphate and Baghdad, the largest city on earth, was taken, which also suffered a “general massacre.”

Only the Mamelukes managed to defeat the Mongol detachment in Palestine (1260), thereby protecting Egypt from the Mongol invasion. It was a victory comparable to the victory of Charles Martell over the Arabs at Poitiers, because. it marked a turning point in repelling the wave of invasion.

Starting with the conquest of Rus' (1237), we can talk about the gradual attenuation of Mongol expansion. At the turning point of expansion, between 1237 and 1241. the Mongols invaded Europe. Their onslaught, as in Asia, was cruel and terrifying. Having devastated Rus', southern Poland and a large part of Hungary, in Silesia they destroyed an army of German knights (1241) near the city of Legnica, west of the Oder River.

The Mongols began to retreat from Western Europe in 1241/42, despite the fact that all the battles of 1241–1242. were won. Khan Batu (khan of the Golden Horde from 1243 to 1255; grandson of Genghis Khan) did not meet organized powerful resistance in Europe. Apparently, only problems associated with the choice of Genghis Khan's successor (after the death of Ogedei Khan) forced the Mongol leaders to turn east after this victory. Khan Batu understood that he was unable to keep Poland, Hungary and the lands of the South Slavs under his rule. By 1243, all Mongol armies were withdrawn to the Carpathians. They managed to collect tribute from Hungary only once.

In the 40s XIII century Batu Khan created the Tatar-Mongol state Golden Horde (Western Siberia; northern Khorezm; Volga Bulgaria; Crimea; steppes from the Volga to the Danube). Capital Cities : Saray-Batu (Old Saray; modern Astrakhan region); SarayBerke (from the 1st half of the 14th century; New Saray; modern Volgograd region). The Russian principalities were vassals of the Golden Horde. Since the 15th century the empire broke up into Siberian, Astrakhan, Kazan, Crimean and other khanates.

Extreme western borders invasion ended up in the German city of Meissen and the countryside in Austria, where a Mongol detachment killed up to a hundred peasants.

Under Kublai Kublai (1278-1294; 5th Great Khan), Mongol expansion reached extreme southern and eastern points : long conquest of Vietnam, unsuccessful campaigns in Japan, unsuccessful invasion of the island of Java (decisive resistance of the people). Thus, Mongol Empire could exist only as long as it fought:

only conquests held it together.

Reasons for the success of the Mongol conquests: Internal reasons:

The military and diplomatic talent of Genghis Khan. Genghis Khan himself was distinguished by his amazing ability to adapt to unfamiliar conditions and willingly used Chinese and Muslim-Turkic “specialists” in his army. He organized an excellent “informant service”, and a lot of information was brought to him by merchants of all nationalities and religions, whom he encouraged in every possible way. Genghis Khan also succeeded in the cool, thoughtful use of diplomatic measures and military force according to the circumstances. All these qualities allowed Genghis Khan, his gifted sons, grandsons and military leaders to continuously win victories over yet another enemy.

ideological justification Genghis Khan's conquests were the idea of ​​his election by the Eternal Heaven as the khan of all peoples;

The social homogeneity of Mongolian society and the relative weakness of antagonism within it;

Availability of cavalry. In the steppe, man is inseparable from horse and saber (“man-centaur”). The horses were decorated with blankets made of human skin, and the skulls of killed enemies were hung from the saddles. In the steppe you have to kill first - otherwise they will kill you → you have to train every day in the ability to kill.

Under the command of Genghis Khan there was an excellently organized and disciplined army; it consisted of horse archers and had exceptional mobility (up to 150 km per day) combined with superiority in long-range weapons. (Genghis Khan’s army≈129 thousand, Batu’s army≈142 thousand); if one warrior fled from the battlefield, a dozen were punished; 10 people retreated - a hundred were punished. The army created by Genghis Khan was a decisive factor in the successes of the relatively small ethnic group of the Mongols.

The Mongol conquests, which crushed the civilization of the Middle Ages, became possible thanks to a fundamental discovery - Mongolian bow(“saadak”). It was a complex killing machine, glued together from bone and wood of various types. An arrow from this bow could pierce any armor 400 meters away. The Mongols taught children 3 years to the bow, gradually increasing its size.

A variety of tactics used depending on specific conditions:

tactics of mercy during surrender; tactics of encircling a large space by several detachments and moving to their center, encircling and squeezing the enemy;

The Empire of Genghis Khan united the military forces of the largest part of the nomads of Central Asia (not only Mongolian, but also many Turkic, Manchurian, Tungusic, etc.).

Large numbers, unity, subordination to the power of one khan, who was the absolute ruler over life and death, the person and property of all his subordinates.

Causes of external order

The fragmentation of the conquered territories, whose rulers were afraid to arm the people against the Mongols;

The betrayal of the merchants, who were a cosmopolitan force (informants, spies, guides for military detachments);

Crowd tactics (civilians first, then Mongol warriors).

Consequences of the Mongol conquests

Describing the consequences of the Mongol conquests, Yelu Chutsai, who literally saved China from extermination, wrote: “The heavenly network was torn, the axis of the earth was broken, human justice disappeared.”

As a result of the conquests of Genghis Khan, his sons and grandsons, an empire was created, unprecedented in its size (from Korea in the East to Syria in the West; including the territory of Central Asia, China, the Caucasus, Afghanistan, Iran). The cities of Rus' were burned and tributed; devastating raids were carried out on Hungary, Drake, Moravia and Poland.

The consequences of the invasions were different for different regions: they were the most severe for Central Asia (huge human losses, destruction of the irrigation system). They were difficult for China, especially the north. But here we can also talk about assimilation :

Khubilai's heirs mastered the basics of Chinese culture, including language and writing. In particular, for China. language the biography of Genghis Khan was translated (only this translation has survived to this day). But for the indigenous population they remained strangers;

In the XIV century. rulers various parts The Mongol Empire adopted Buddhism or Islam. This meant that in fact they were conquered by the cultures in which they lived - Chinese, Persian or Arab.

If we talk about Rus', then we should talk, first of all, about the serious consequences in terms of spirituality. Currently There is a debate going on all the time: “Was there a yoke?” Most major historians are supporters of the traditional point of view that the Mongol invasion played a completely negative role in the history of the Russian people. Others: consequences both negative and positive. Third: the consequence was the formation of an empire and imperial space.

Metaphor: nomads are not only children, but also fathers of the desert. This fully applies to the Mongols, especially in relation to Northern China and Central Asia.

The territory of Mongolia suffered greatly (after the creation of the empire, the population of Mongolia decreased sharply; the color of the Mongolian population settled throughout the continent). The policy of conquest slowed down not only the progressive development of the conquered countries, but also the development of the productive forces and culture of Mongolia itself. The Mongol Empire, created by fire and sword, on the blood of enslaved peoples, torn apart by internal contradictions, did not have a single economic base, and ultimately fell under the blows of the conquered peoples.

In the period before the formation of statehood among the Mongols, the tribes that lived here had their own names and were not called Mongols.

Most researchers consider the Mongols to be the “black” Tatars 3 Bagatur - warrior; noyon - lord; representative of the steppe nobility.

During this period, the Mongols are pagans.

Kurultai ˂Turk. - advice to the nomadic nobility.

Kaan is the Mongolian name for Chinese emperors.

Meritum ˂ lat. - merit, cratos ˂ Greek. - power.

Nuker - a native of the aristocracy, a vassal of the emperor, primarily obliged military service

Jochi from 1224 he was the khan of the Jochi ulus in the west of the Mongol Empire (the territory of northern Kazakhstan); from 1240 Golden Horde; Çağatay(he received Central Asia as his inheritance); Ogedei(eldest son of Genghis Khan; 1186-1241; successor of the Great Khan from 1229); Tuluy(youngest son; ruler of central and western Mongolia).

What human qualities does Genghis Khan appear to have in this source? Do you find them attractive?

Genghis Khan speaks of himself as a hardy true warrior, unmercenary and a supporter of equality. These qualities command respect.

What human qualities does Genghis Khan appear to have in this source?

Here Genghis Khan is shown as a very cruel man.

Compare the findings from the two sources. What is the question? Compare it with the author’s formulation (p. 273).

Question: Why didn’t the Mongols create another civilization?

Answer: At that time, the main feature of civilization was religion. The Mongols did not create their own religion that met the needs of civilization, but adopted Islam. Civilization could have been created by the development of a separate confession (like the division of the Catholic and Orthodox worlds), but the Mongols accepted the already widespread Sunnism.

Do you think the Mongol tribes have reached the level of civilization or not?

The Mongols created their own state, in which they were big cities and a complex control system. They have become civilized.

Genghis Khan became a great conqueror. He created a huge empire. It collapsed, but the power of the Mongols in its parts remained.

What are the reasons for the successful conquests of the Mongols? In your opinion, as a person of the 21st century, what actions of Genghis Khan and his warriors can evoke respect, and what actions can evoke disgust? Explain why.

Reasons for the Mongols' success:

The main strength of the Mongols were well-trained horse archers;

Iron discipline reigned in the Mongol army;

The Mongols used various tactical tricks, for example, a false retreat of the center of the army and a strike on the flanks of the enemy who was carried away by the pursuit;

Mongol warriors were unpretentious, so they could do without convoys, thanks to moving very quickly;

The Mongols adopted the achievements of the conquered peoples, for example, the siege engines of the Chinese;

Many of the Mongols' opponents, such as the Chinese, were divided and sometimes even tried to use the Mongols against each other.

Draw a conclusion about the historical image of Genghis Khan.

Genghis Khan remained in history as the creator of a flawlessly working military machine, but at the same time a very cruel person.

Name the neighbors of the Mongol state by 1206. Which lands did Genghis Khan conquer, and which lands did his heirs conquer?

The Mongol Khanate was surrounded by the states of the Kirghiz, Kara-Chinese, Tanguts and the Jin Empire. Genghis Khan conquered them all, except for the Jin Empire - it was captured by his heirs.

Divide the lands conquered by the Mongols into groups on the basis of “civilized / primitive” and on the basis of “different civilizations”.

Only the Cuman tribes were considered primitive, the rest were considered civilized.

The Far Eastern civilization included the states of the Kyrgyz, Kara-Chinese, Tanguts, Tibet, and the Song and Jin empires.

Indian civilization included Nepal and the part of Burma captured by the Mongols.

The Islamic civilization included the state of Khorezmshah, Volga Bulgaria and the territory controlled by Baghdad.

Armenia, Georgia and Alania belonged to the Orthodox civilization.

Some lands of Catholic civilization experienced the Mongol invasion, but they did not fall under the rule of the Mongols.

Why did the united Mongol Empire collapse? Working in pairs, describe a dispute between a Mongol and a representative of one of the conquered peoples, in which one would argue that the Mongol conquests brought benefit to the peoples of the world, and the other would refute his words.

The Mongol Empire collapsed because the heirs of Genghis Khan all considered themselves worthy of power, while everyone relied on different territories, which before the conquest were separate states and even civilizations, and listened to different advisers.

A person from a conquered people would describe how cruel the Mongols were during the invasion, what beautiful temples and libraries were destroyed. He himself would have admitted that under the Mongols trade had improved, peace had been restored, that the Mongols were fighting bandits and allowing enemies into their flourishing cities. But in his opinion this did not justify the cruelty of the invasion. To this, a Mongol would only object that the Mongols turned out to be stronger than all other peoples, therefore, by the right of the stronger, they dominate, and there is nothing to argue about. The Mongols for a long time were not like the Arabs, they did not strive to seem enlightened, most of them even continued to live in nomads.

Draw a conclusion about the historical image of Genghis Khan.

Genghis Khan turned out to be not only a talented commander, he was able to establish an effective management system in his state.

INVASION OF THE MONGOL-TATARS ON Rus', 1237-1240.

In 1237, the 75,000-strong army of Khan Batu invaded Russian borders. Hordes of Mongol-Tatars, a well-armed army of the Khan's empire, the largest in medieval history, came to conquer Rus': to wipe out rebellious Russian cities and villages from the face of the earth, impose tribute on the population and establish the power of their governors - the Baskaks - throughout the entire Russian land.

The Mongol-Tatars’ attack on Rus' was sudden, but not only this determined the success of the invasion. For a number of objective reasons, power was on the side of the conquerors, the fate of Rus' was predetermined, as was the success of the Mongol-Tatar invasion.

By the beginning of the 13th century, Rus' was a country torn into small principalities, without a single ruler or army. Behind the Mongol-Tatars, on the contrary, stood a strong and united power, approaching the peak of its power. Only a century and a half later, in 1380, in different political and economic conditions, Rus' was able to field a strong army against the Golden Horde led by a single commander - the Grand Duke of Moscow Dmitry Ivanovich and move from a shameful and unsuccessful defense to active military action and achieve a devastating victory on the Kulikovo field.

Not about any unity of the Russian land in 1237-1240. there was no question, the invasion of the Mongol-Tatars showed the weakness of Rus', the invasion of the enemy and the power of the Golden Horde established for two and a half centuries, the Golden Horde yoke became retribution for internecine enmity and trampling of all-Russian interests on the part of Russian princes, too keen on satisfying their political ambitions.

The Mongol-Tatar invasion of Rus' was swift and merciless. In December 1237, Batu’s army burned Ryazan, and on January 1, 1238, Kolomna fell under enemy pressure. During January - May 1238, the Mongol-Tatar invasion incinerated the Vladimir, Pereyaslav, Yuryev, Rostov, Yaroslavl, Uglitsky and Kozel principalities. In 1239 it was destroyed by Murom, a year later the inhabitants of the cities and villages of the Chernigov principality faced the misfortune of the Mongol-Tatar invasion, and in September - December 1240 the ancient capital city of Rus' - Kyiv - was conquered.

After the defeat of North-Eastern and Southern Rus', the countries of Eastern Europe were subjected to the Mongol-Tatar invasion: Batu’s army won a number of major victories in Poland, Hungary, and the Czech Republic, but, having lost significant forces on Russian soil, returned to the Volga region, which became the epicenter of the powerful Golden Horde.

With the invasion of the Mongol-Tatars into Rus', the Golden Horde period of Russian history began: the era of the rule of Eastern despotism, oppression and ruin of the Russian people, the period of decline of the Russian economy and culture.

The beginning of the Mongol conquests of the Russian principalities

In the 13th century the peoples of Rus' had to endure a difficult struggle with Tatar-Mongol conquerors, who ruled the Russian lands until the 15th century. (last century in a milder form). Directly or indirectly, the Mongol invasion contributed to the fall of the political institutions of the Kyiv period and the rise of absolutism.

In the 12th century. There was no centralized state in Mongolia; the unification of the tribes was achieved at the end of the 12th century. Temuchin, the leader of one of the clans. At the general meeting (“kurultai”) of representatives of all clans in 1206 he was proclaimed great khan with the name Genghis(“limitless power”).

Once the empire was created, it began its expansion. The organization of the Mongol army was based on the decimal principle - 10, 100, 1000, etc. An imperial guard was created that controlled the entire army. Before the advent of firearms Mongol cavalry prevailed in the steppe wars. She was better organized and trained than any army of nomads of the past. The reason for the success was not only the perfection of the military organization of the Mongols, but also the unpreparedness of their rivals.

At the beginning of the 13th century, having conquered part of Siberia, the Mongols began to conquer China in 1215. They managed to capture its entire northern part. From China, the Mongols brought the latest military equipment and specialists for that time. In addition, they received a cadre of competent and experienced officials from among the Chinese. In 1219, Genghis Khan's troops invaded Central Asia. Following Central Asia there was Northern Iran captured, after which Genghis Khan’s troops made a predatory campaign in Transcaucasia. From the south they came to the Polovtsian steppes and defeated the Polovtsians.

The Polovtsians' request to help them against a dangerous enemy was accepted by the Russian princes. The battle between the Russian-Polovtsian and Mongol troops took place on May 31, 1223 on the Kalka River in the Azov region. Not all Russian princes who promised to participate in the battle sent their troops. The battle ended in the defeat of the Russian-Polovtsian troops, many princes and warriors died.

In 1227 Genghis Khan died. Ögedei, his third son, was elected Great Khan. In 1235, the Kurultai met in the Mongol capital Kara-korum, where it was decided to begin the conquest of the western lands. This intention posed a terrible threat to Russian lands. At the head of the new campaign was Ogedei's nephew, Batu (Batu).

In 1236, Batu's troops began a campaign against the Russian lands. Having defeated Volga Bulgaria, they set out to conquer the Ryazan principality. The Ryazan princes, their squads and townspeople had to fight the invaders alone. The city was burned and plundered. After the capture of Ryazan, Mongol troops moved to Kolomna. In the battle near Kolomna, many Russian soldiers died, and the battle itself ended in defeat for them. On February 3, 1238, the Mongols approached Vladimir. Having besieged the city, the invaders sent a detachment to Suzdal, which took it and burned it. The Mongols stopped only in front of Novgorod, turning south due to muddy roads.

In 1240, the Mongol offensive resumed. Chernigov and Kyiv were captured and destroyed. From here the Mongol troops moved to Galicia-Volyn Rus'. Having captured Vladimir-Volynsky, Galich in 1241 Batu invaded Poland, Hungary, the Czech Republic, Moravia, and then in 1242 reached Croatia and Dalmatia. However, Mongol troops entered Western Europe significantly weakened by the powerful resistance they encountered in Rus'. This largely explains the fact that if the Mongols managed to establish their yoke in Rus', Western Europe only experienced an invasion and then on a smaller scale. This is the historical role of the heroic resistance of the Russian people to the Mongol invasion.

The result of Batu's grandiose campaign was the conquest of a vast territory - the southern Russian steppes and forests of Northern Rus', the Lower Danube region (Bulgaria and Moldova). The Mongol Empire now included the entire Eurasian continent from the Pacific Ocean to the Balkans.

After Ogedei's death in 1241, the majority supported the candidacy of Ogedei's son Hayuk. Batu became the head of the strongest regional khanate. He founded his capital at Sarai (north of Astrakhan). His power extended to Kazakhstan, Khorezm, Western Siberia, Volga, North Caucasus, Rus'. Gradually the western part of this ulus became known as Golden Horde.

The first armed clash between the Russian squad and the Mongol-Tatar army occurred 14 years before Batu’s invasion. In 1223, the Mongol-Tatar army under the command of Subudai-Baghatur went on a campaign against the Polovtsians in close proximity to Russian lands. At the request of the Polovtsians, some Russian princes provided military assistance to the Polovtsians.

On May 31, 1223, a battle took place between Russian-Polovtsian troops and Mongol-Tatars on the Kalka River near the Sea of ​​Azov. As a result of this battle, the Russian-Polovtsian militia suffered a crushing defeat from the Mongol-Tatars. The Russian-Polovtsian army suffered heavy losses. Six Russian princes died, including Mstislav Udaloy, the Polovtsian Khan Kotyan and more than 10 thousand militiamen.

The main reasons for the defeat of the Russian-Polish army were:

The reluctance of the Russian princes to act as a united front against the Mongol-Tatars (most Russian princes refused to respond to the request of their neighbors and send troops);

Underestimation of the Mongol-Tatars (the Russian militia was poorly armed and was not properly prepared for battle);

Inconsistency of actions during the battle (Russian troops were not a single army, but scattered squads of different princes acting in their own way; some squads withdrew from the battle and watched from the sidelines).

Having won a victory on Kalka, the army of Subudai-Baghatur did not build on its success and went to the steppes.

4. After 13 years, in 1236, the Mongol-Tatar army led by Khan Batu (Batu Khan), the grandson of Genghis Khan and the son of Jochi, invaded the Volga steppes and Volga Bulgaria (the territory of modern Tataria). Having won a victory over the Cumans and Volga Bulgars, the Mongol-Tatars decided to invade Rus'.

The conquest of Russian lands was carried out during two campaigns:

The campaign of 1237 - 1238, as a result of which the Ryazan and Vladimir-Suzdal principalities - northeast Rus' - were conquered;

The campaign of 1239 - 1240, as a result of which the Chernigov and Kiev principalities and other principalities of southern Rus' were conquered. The Russian principalities offered heroic resistance. Among the most important battles of the war with the Mongol-Tatars are:

Defense of Ryazan (1237) - the very first large city to be attacked by the Mongol-Tatars - almost all residents participated and died during the defense of the city;

Defense of Vladimir (1238);

Defense of Kozelsk (1238) - the Mongol-Tatars stormed Kozelsk for 7 weeks, for which they nicknamed it the “evil city”;

Battle of the City River (1238) - the heroic resistance of the Russian militia prevented the further advance of the Mongol-Tatars to the north - to Novgorod;

The defense of Kyiv - the city fought for about a month.

December 6, 1240 Kyiv fell. This event is considered the final defeat of the Russian principalities in the fight against the Mongol-Tatars.

The main reasons for the defeat of the Russian principalities in the war against the Mongol-Tatars are considered to be:

Feudal fragmentation;

Lack of a single centralized state and a unified army;

Enmity between princes;

The transition of individual princes to the side of the Mongols;

The technical backwardness of the Russian squads and the military and organizational superiority of the Mongol-Tatars.

Consequences of the Mongol-Tatars invasion for the Old Russian state.

The invasion of nomads was accompanied by massive destruction of Russian cities, the inhabitants were mercilessly destroyed or taken prisoner. This led to a noticeable decline in Russian cities - the population decreased, the lives of city residents became poorer, and many crafts were lost.

The Mongol-Tatar invasion dealt a heavy blow to the basis of urban culture - handicraft production, since the destruction of cities was accompanied by mass removals of artisans to Mongolia and the Golden Horde. Together with the craft population, Russian cities lost centuries of production experience: the craftsmen took their professional secrets with them. The quality of construction subsequently also dropped significantly. The conquerors inflicted no less heavy damage on the Russian countryside and rural monasteries of Rus'. The peasants were robbed by everyone: Horde officials, numerous Khan's ambassadors, and simply regional gangs. The damage caused by the Mongol-Tatars to the peasant economy was terrible. Dwellings and outbuildings were destroyed in the war. Draft cattle were captured and driven to the Horde. Horde robbers often raked out the entire harvest from barns. Russian peasant prisoners were an important export item from the Golden Horde to the East. Ruin, constant threat, shameful slavery - this is what the conquerors brought to the Russian village. Damage caused national economy Rus''s Mongolo-Tatar conquerors did not limit themselves to devastating robberies during raids. After the establishment of the yoke, huge values ​​left the country in the form of “ani” and “requests”. The constant leakage of silver and other metals had dire consequences for the economy. There was not enough silver for trade; there was even a “silver famine.” The Mongol-Tatar conquest led to a significant deterioration in the international position of the Russian principalities. Ancient trade and cultural ties with neighboring states were forcibly severed. For example, Lithuanian feudal lords used the weakening of Rus' for predatory raids. The German feudal lords also intensified the attack on the Russian lands. Russia lost the way to the Baltic Sea. In addition, the ancient ties of the Russian principalities with Byzantium were broken, and trade fell into decline. The invasion dealt a strong destructive blow to the culture of the Russian principalities. Numerous monuments, icon paintings and architecture were destroyed in the fire of the Mongol-Tatar invasions. And also there was a decline in Russian chronicle writing, which reached its dawn at the beginning of Batu’s invasion.

The Mongol-Tatar conquest artificially delayed the spread of commodity-money relations and “mothballed” the natural economy. While the Western European states, which were not attacked, gradually moved from feudalism to capitalism, Rus', torn apart by the conquerors, retained the feudal economy. It is difficult to even imagine how dearly the campaigns of the Mongol khans would have cost humanity and how many more misfortunes, murders and destruction they could have caused if the heroic resistance of the Russian people and other peoples of our country, having exhausted and weakened the enemy, had not stopped the invasion on the borders of Central Europe.

The positive thing was that all Russian clergy and church people were spared from paying the heavy Tatar tribute. It should be noted that the Tatars were completely tolerant of all religions, and the Russian Orthodox Church not only did not tolerate any oppression from the khans, but, on the contrary, Russian metropolitans received from the khans special letters (“yarlyki”), which ensured the rights and privileges of the clergy and immunity church properties. The Church became the force that preserved and nurtured not only the religious, but also the national unity of the Russian “peasantry.”

Finally, Tatar rule separated Eastern Rus' from Western Europe for a long time, and after the formation of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, the eastern branch of the Russian people found itself separated for several centuries from its western branch, which created a wall of mutual alienation between them. Eastern Rus', which was under the rule of the Tatars, itself turned into “Tataria” in the minds of ignorant Europeans...

What are the consequences of the Mongol-Tatar invasion, the yoke?

Firstly, this is the backwardness of Rus' from European countries. Europe continued to develop, while Rus' had to restore everything destroyed by the Mongols.

The second is the decline of the economy. A lot of people were lost. Many crafts disappeared (the Mongols took artisans into slavery). Farmers also moved to more northern regions of the country, safer from the Mongols. All this delayed economic development.

Third, the slowness of cultural development of Russian lands. For some time after the invasion, no churches were built at all in Rus'.

Fourth – cessation of contacts, including trade, with the countries of Western Europe. Now the foreign policy of Rus' was focused on the Golden Horde. The Horde appointed princes, collected tribute from the Russian people, and carried out punitive campaigns when the principalities disobeyed.

The fifth consequence is very controversial. Some scientists say that the invasion and the yoke preserved political fragmentation in Rus', others argue that the yoke gave impetus to the unification of Russians.

Main social groups	Their composition	Functions
Privileged social groups	The top clergy (before the adoption of Christianity - the Magi, pagan priests, from the 10th century - the Orthodox clergy), princes, boyars (senior warriors), the top merchants.	Ownership and disposal of property, participation in company management.
Free population ("people")	Rural community members, urban artisans, traders, ordinary warriors, priests, monks	Creation of wealth, payment of taxes, participation in solving problems of society, in military campaigns
Dependent population	Ryadovichi are dependent under a contract (“row”). Purchases - having a farm and working off a debt (“kupa”) - grain, livestock, tools. Servants - slaves from among prisoners of war, domestic servants. Serfs are slaves from the local population. Sources of servitude: entering the service without a rank (contract), marrying a servant. Smerdas are prisoners of war, slaves imprisoned on the ground, military servants of the prince. There is an opinion that smerds are semi-free people who performed duties in favor of the prince and paid him tribute. Smerdas are all peasants who paid state taxes (tribute).	Fulfillment of duties arising from dependency relationships
Marginal (side) elements	Outcasts are people who broke with their community and left it: peasants expelled from the community; bankrupt merchants; princes "without a place."	Fight for survival

Reasons for the Mongol conquests:

Natural climatic factor: the climate is becoming drier and less favorable for extensive cattle breeding

Demographic factor: overpopulation of the Steppe

The socio-economic factor is the desire of the tribal nobility to enrich themselves;

The personality of Genghis Khan.

1206 - Timuchin (Temujin) was proclaimed Genghis Khan (Great Khan) at the kurultai (congress) of noyons (tribal nobility).

1211 – seizure of the lands of the Buryats, Yakuts, Kyrgyz, Uyghurs;

1217 – conquest of Northern China;

1219-1221 – conquest of Northern Asia.

1220-1222 – invasion of Transcaucasia, Iran;

1223 - invasion of the Polovtsian steppes and the battle on the Kalka River, which ended in the defeat of the united Russian-Polovtsian troops

Campaigns of Khan Batu (grandson of Genghis Khan)

1236 – conquest and defeat of Volga Bulgaria;

1237-1240 – conquest of Russian lands;

1237-1238 – the first campaign of Khan Batu;

1237 – ruin of the Ryazan principality;

1238 – destruction of Kolomna and Moscow;

1238 – battle on the river City, which ended with the defeat of the squads of the Vladimir, Rostov, Yaroslavl, Uglich and Yuryev principalities;

1238 – capture of Torzhok, which defended for two weeks. Not reaching Novgorod 110 versts, the Mongols turned south, where they defeated Kozelsk (“ evil city"), Nizhny Novgorod, Murom;

1239-1240 – new campaign of Khan Batu to the south:

1239 – capture of Pereyaslavl-Yuzhny and Chernigov;

1240 - the ruin of Kyiv;

1241 – invasion of the Galicia-Volyn principality.

1241-1242 – attempted invasion of Eastern Europe (Poland, Hungary, Czech Republic).

The main reasons for the success of the Mongol conquerors.

As a rule, the Mongol army had a numerical superiority over the armies of the agricultural states;

Excellent fighting qualities of the Mongolian army: maneuverability, clear organization: uniting warriors into tens, hundreds, thousands, tens of thousands (tumen, or darkness); strict discipline; good combat training of warriors.

The Mongols' use of military-technical achievements of other peoples (especially Chinese siege equipment).

The disunity of the forces of the opponents of the Mongols (many of them, including Rus', were experiencing a period of political fragmentation.

Intimidating the enemy through terror.

Education of the Golden Horde. Rus' and the Horde.

1243 - the formation by the Mongols on the southeastern borders of Rus', in the steppe lower reaches of the Volga, of a new state - the Golden Horde (translated as camp, nomadic camp, courtyard).

Composition: Western Siberia, Northern Khorezm, Volga Bulgaria, Northern Caucasus, Crimea, Irtysh steppes to the Danube.

Capital – Saray (palace) - Batu (Old Saray, Astrakhan region);

From the first half of the 14th century. – Saray Berke (New Saray, Volgograd region)

Formally, the Russian lands were not directly included in the territory of the Golden Horde, but the Vladimir-Suzdal, Novgorod, Murom and Ryazan lands recognized the supreme power of the Great Khan of the Golden Horde. The Baskaks were sent to the Russian lands, demanding that the princes appear before Batu with an expression of submission. Yaroslav Vsevolodovich, who remained the eldest among the Vladimir-Suzdal princes, in 1243 was the first to go to the Horde to bow to Batu Khan.

He was forced to submit to the pagan rite of the Horde: to walk between two fires and under the “yoke” (crossed spears) to bow to the shadow of Gengistakh. Having performed this ritual and received a label (letter) from the khan for the great reign, the prince recognized his vassal (subordinate) position in relation to the rulers of the Golden Horde. Thus the Golden Horde (Horde) yoke was established, which lasted until 1480. A sovereign, politically independent, independent state on political map Europe is gone.

Manifestations of the Horde yoke

Political sphere	Economic sphere	Spiritual realm
Receiving labels for reign by Russian princes from the Horde khans. Terror against Russian princes: destruction of undesirables, hostage taking. Punitive raids on Russian lands (about 50 during the yoke), among them: 1252 - Nevryuev's army (campaign in the Suzdal land), 1258 - Burundaev's army (campaign in the Galician land). 1293 - Dudenev's army (ruin of 14 cities of North-Eastern Rus'). Inciting civil strife to increase fragmentation. Tightening of Russian legislation: strengthening of the personal power of the Grand Duke and lack of rights for landowners.	Payment of annual tribute - output (food, handicrafts, money, slaves), as well as other taxes: requests - extraordinary payments, funerals - gifts to the khan, his relatives, associates. Maintenance of the administrative apparatus, Horde ambassadors and their retinue in Russian lands. Fulfillment of natural duties: transportation, construction, supply of Russian soldiers to the Mongolian troops, etc. The theft of specialists and artisans into the Horde - the disappearance of a number of complex crafts and the cessation of stone construction for several decades. Creation of privileged conditions for Horde merchants.	Granting special status to the Russian Orthodox Church, the khan’s use of the Christian idea of ​​humility to subjugate the Russians. The influence of the Horde foundations on life, speech (the appearance in the Russian language of words of Turkic origin - “shackles”, “whip”, “bondage”), customs, morality of the Russians. Suppressing the will of the population to resist through terror.

Consequences of the Mongol invasion and the Horde yoke for Russian lands

Migration (relocation, relocation) of the population to the northern regions.

Decline of old agricultural centers and cities.

Desolation of previously developed fertile lands (Wild Field).

The destruction of cities. Simplification and coarsening of the craft.

Slowing down the development of commodity-money relations.

Numerous civilian casualties.

Conservation of political fragmentation.

The introduction of eastern elements into the political structure of the Moscow state: authoritarianism, strict vertical subordination, punitive apparatus, etc.

Separation of various parts of the former Kievan Rus.

Severance or weakening of traditional political and cultural ties with other countries.

Strengthening the position and influence of the Russian Orthodox Church, which played an important role in the unity and survival of the Russian people.

Slowdown of the pace of cultural development.

Points of view of historians on the relationship between Rus' and the Horde in the XIII - XV centuries.

1. The yoke was a great disaster for Rus': political, tributary, military dependence of Rus' on the Horde.

2. There was no yoke in Rus': there were allied relations between Rus' and the Horde - Rus' paid tribute, and the Horde in return ensured the security of the Russian principalities.

3. The Yoke is a specific period in the history of Rus': the country was divided into two parts - the peaceful civilian population was ruled by princes; a permanent army - the Horde - was controlled by military leaders.

Expansion from the West in the 13th century.

Goals of Swedish and German knights

Lack of land in Europe for younger representatives of knightly families and peasants - the seizure of new territories.

Conversion of pagans (Balts) and Orthodox (Russians) to Catholicism.

The invasion of the Swedish fleet and landing on the shore at the mouth of the Neva River with the aim of capturing the cities of Staraya Ladoga and Novgorod.

1240 – Battle of the Neva.

The tactics of Prince Alexander Yaroslavich - an unexpected and lightning-fast attack on the Swedes, blocked the Swedes' retreat to the ships, divided the enemy troops into parts with infantry and cavalry.

The significance of the battle - the shores of the Gulf of Finland remained with Russia, which made it possible to maintain trade with European countries. Northwestern Rus' was able to concentrate all its forces against the German knights.

CHAPTER XII

MONGOL CONQUESTS IN THE 13th century.

One of the main events in the history of Eurasia in the 13th century, which radically influenced the historical destinies of many peoples of the continent, was the Mongol conquest. Accompanied by numerous human casualties and destruction, these conquests led to the formation of the first world-system, which united large regional economic “nuclei” (Europe, Islam, India, China, the Golden Horde), and largely determined the modern ethnic map of Eurasia, because it was as a result of them Many modern peoples arose (Uzbeks, Kazakhs, Siberian, Kazan, Crimean Tatars, Nogais, Karakalpaks, Kirghiz), and other peoples acquired a modern appearance.

ABOUT THE REASONS OF THE MONGOL CONQUESTS

It should be noted that in the 12th century. The nomads of Mongolia lived poorly not only because of the harsh climatic conditions. Social existence itself was difficult due to constant wars. On the one hand, tribal clashes never ceased, and on the other, the nomads were threatened by the powerful, predatory Kinh empire.

In the 12th century. There were constant small and large inter-tribal and inter-clan wars. They could fight over stolen livestock or women, less often over pasture lands, and also because of blood feud. Mutual cattle rustling, kidnapping and murder were the norm of life for nomads of the 12th century. But, on the one hand, not everyone liked this, and on the other, it divided the nomads and made them weak in the face of an external enemy - the Jurchens.

Agricultural and pastoral people of the Tungus-Manchu language group- The Jurchens (the ancestors of the modern Manchus) were subordinate to the Khitan Liao Empire until the twenties of the 12th century. But the Things weakened, their state weakened, and another uprising brought freedom to the Jurchens. Moreover, they themselves conquered Northern China and created the Golden Empire there - Kin (modern Chinese Jin), and in their language - Aisin Gurun.

According to Men-da Bei-lu, the ruler of the Jurchens, deciding that wild nomads could pose a threat to his borders, ordered to attack them and reduce their numbers. The author of the source further reports that the so-called campaigns to “reduce the adult population” were carried out every few years. Adult nomads were destroyed, and their children were enslaved. In those days, in a rare Chinese estate of any size, there were no child slaves from the “northern barbarians.” It goes on to say that the nomads migrated to the north and “the thirst for revenge penetrated their brains and blood.” Genghis Khan hated the Jurchens for their atrocities and even, as the author of the source reports, started a war with Kin because of this. The Secret History of the Mongols tells in detail about the atrocities of the Jurchens and their murder of the influential leader of the Mongols - Temujin's relative - Ambagai Khan. He, having gone to see off his daughter, who had been married to a noble representative of the Tatars, was captured by another Tatar tribe and handed over to the Jurchens. They put the khan to a painful execution - they nailed him to a wooden donkey and left him to die. Of course, the relatives of the executed man, including his close descendant Temujin, found themselves in a state of blood enmity towards the Jurchens.

Let us note once again: the Jurchen emperors pursued a deliberate policy of exterminating the Mongols and other nomads.

According to Men-da Bei-lu, even Temujin himself spent 11 years in Jurchen captivity. Only one source reports about this unpleasant period in the life of the great ruler, but this message fills a gap in the biography of Genghis Khan, where it is unclear what happened to him in the years between his defeat of one of the Tatar tribes and the Battle of Koyten (1201). Temujin was not killed, as L.N. assumed. Gumilyov, because of his Jin title, granted for the defeat of the Tatar tribe, or because of his influence on the nomads, which was beneficial to the Jurchens (this is the assumption of A.A. Domanin).

Even after 1206, the Jurchens sent a representative to the Steppe and demanded tribute, which Genghis Khan rejected.

All of the above quite clearly shows that the widespread idea that the Mongols waged wars solely for predatory motives is, to put it mildly, not indisputable. However, this does not prevent us from painting the history of the Mongol conquests as if from scratch: as if the Mongols united into one state and, for no apparent reason, attacked their southern neighbors in 1211, and the previous century of their relations with their “peace-loving” neighbors is completely discarded.

The situation around Khorezm looks just as ambiguous.

If we compare the real facts, and not speculate about Genghis Khan’s plans to conquer the world, then the following picture is visible. Khorezmshah was thinking of conquering China, however, upon learning that it had already been partially conquered by the Mongols, he sent an ambassador to Beijing. He was well received by Genghis Khan, gifted, and received a message for the Shah, which proposed dividing the “spheres of influence” (Genghis is the ruler of the East, Muhammad is the ruler of the West) and establishing trade. Despite this, in 1216 on the Irgiz River, when the Mongols defeated the Merkits, they were attacked without any reason by the troops of the Khorezmshah, who had the nickname Gazi (“Conqueror of the Infidels”). However, the aggressors were rebuffed. Despite this, the Mongols do not start a war with a strong (seemingly) neighbor, but are trying to establish trade relations (the Uyghur merchants who voluntarily joined Genghis Khan especially wanted this). But in 1218, the chief of the city of Otrar, a relative of the Shah’s mother, killed Mongolian (Uyghur) merchants and took their goods for himself. He motivated his actions by the fact that the merchants were allegedly engaged in espionage (evidence received from the enemy of the Mongols cannot in itself claim complete reliability). But even after this, the Mongols, busy at war with their ancient enemies the Jurchens, tried to maintain peace. Sending merchants specifically to spy, and then using their execution as a pretext for war is also problematic: will hundreds of Muslim merchants risk their heads for the khan, going to death when they need trade?... An embassy arrived in Khorezm, but the Khorezmshah killed the ambassadors. After this, the Mongols were forced to start a war (after all, not avenging the treacherous murder of friends and loved ones was a violation of the ideals of which Yasa was an expression). As reported in paragraph 254 of the “Secret History”, Genghis Khan stated: “I will go to war against the Sartaul people and with legal revenge I will avenge a hundred of my ambassadorial people.” It is interesting to note this: these words of Chingis are conveyed by the author of the source, who, apparently, was a representative of the military elite and a patriot, not a pacifist at all. It is unlikely that he would need such justifications for the invasion.

It can be assumed that some of the ambassadors actually spied (this, however, was the traditional occupation of merchants in different countries different eras), and that among them there were suicides who sacrificed themselves to incite a conflict (which is already unlikely, because they were all Muslims, and would hardly have taken risks, much less sacrificed themselves for the sake of the cause of war and the plans of the pagan khan) . However, this assumption also shows that even Genghis Khan needed some plausible reason for the general mobilization of nomads. The author of “The Secret History...” reports the reason for the war with the Sarts (Khorezm): revenge for the murder of the Mongol ambassadors. This means that at least some of the nomads went to war precisely out of a desire to take revenge on the offenders (the Jurchens, the Khorezmshah), but not with the idea of ​​conquering the world. The author of “The Secret History...” was proud of the successes of Mongolian weapons and would hardly have sought excuses for an ordinary predatory campaign. However, he specifically reports revenge for the ambassadors as the cause of the war.

Mercantile considerations can also be added to the reasons for the war. After all, the Khorezmshah made it clear that Mongolian merchants were not welcome in his place, so there was no longer any need to worry too much about trade (at best, the “Otrar” incidents could have been repeated, and the Khorezmians would have fought very hard for transit). A lot was stolen in China, but it was impossible to sell it or exchange it for Central Asian goods; but it was possible to take them as trophies and tribute.

To this it must be added that in Central Asia the Mongols fought the same way as in China - with the conquerors, because The Khorezmshah dynasty, whose representatives brutally conquered the Middle East in the previous decades, came from the Mamluks, i.e. “battle serfs” of the Seljukids, essentially diethized Turks, who relied on the nomadic tribes of the steppe, who treated the settled population with contempt. Constant wars interfered economic development region (although its condition on the eve of the Mongol invasion was relatively good), the population of which was oppressed by the ferocious ghouls. This is not very similar to the prosperous agricultural civilization that the Mongols allegedly plunged into ruin.

Of course, during this and subsequent wars, the Mongols caused a lot of destruction and killed many thousands of people, but in those days wars were constant, and the same Muhammad, shortly before the fateful 1219, flooded Iran and Iraq with blood. Or here is an example of the Caucasian countries, allegedly devastated by the Mongols: no less (if not more) damage was caused to them by Jelal ad-Din who retreated there; The Armenian chronicles speak eloquently about this, and even earlier, the Polovtsian refugees. However, in the 19th century. everything was blamed on the Mongols.

Therefore, we need to be very careful about statements that Genghis Khan allegedly wanted to conquer the world: we don’t know this for sure, and we will never know. But the logic of the events that took place in the first quarter of the bloody 13th century paints a slightly different picture: at first, the Mongols were forced to wage offensive wars in order to repel strong aggressors, namely the Jurchens and Khorezmians. And only decades later, the aged comrades of Genghis Khan and their children, who grew up in an atmosphere imbued with the idea of ​​​​the invincibility of the Mongols, have a desire to continue the wars and see to what limits of the world their military luck can take them. A similar interpretation of the reasons for the late Mongol conquests is given by the Dalmatian chronicler Thomas of Split, a contemporary of the Mongol invasion of Europe: “Seeing that fate brought him (the Mongol ruler) success in all wars, he became extremely swaggering and arrogant. And, believing that in the whole world there was no people or country that could resist his power, he planned to receive trophies of glory from all nations. He wanted to prove to the whole world great power his power..."

The march of Jebe and Subetei through the Caucasus to the southern Russian steppes looks just as ambiguous. It is quite possible that this was a maneuver, the purpose of which was to enter the rear of the Kipchaks - the enemies of the Mongols, who had been waging war with the Mongols for several years. The clash with the Russian princes was provoked by the princes themselves: the Mongols faced a country with a population of six million, strong cities and developed handicraft production, so the Mongols tried to the last to keep the Russians from acting on the side of the Polovtsy-Kypchaks; however, the Russian princes killed the Mongol ambassadors and went against the Mongols. Moreover, judging by the tone of the Russian chronicles, the treachery and carelessness of the princes in relation to the unknown people was condemned by many contemporaries, in particular by the chroniclers.

It must be recalled that the Mongolian ulus itself arose in many respects not even for the exploitation of its neighbors, but for protection from them. This is what manifested itself in relations with Jin and Khorezm. However, where are the manifestations of the xenocratic nature of the nomadic Mongol statehood? Nomadic empires are based on and for the remote exploitation of sedentary neighbors. Those. Eke Mongol ulus was not a priori a peaceful polity. Of course, China and Khorezm could have been enough for the Mongols. But until a certain time and for certain people. The descendants of Jochi, for example, inherited rather poor steppe lands with a nomadic population and the opportunity to expand them to the west (and in the east and southwest everything had already been divided). Therefore, the Jochids clearly would not have abandoned an all-empire campaign.

Regarding Batu's invasion and the Mongol yoke in Rus', we can say with confidence that this is a very old theory, accepted without any criticism. But can it be considered scientific theory such without its critical understanding? No. The position of L.N. Gumilyov (very biased and subjective) helped to critically examine and correct it, which was that the Mongol invasion was also caused by the aggressiveness of the Russians, the murder of ambassadors, and the conquest and yoke did not bring such large-scale destruction and negative consequences as is customary count, and even defended Rus' from Western aggression. There is no space here to discuss all of L.N. Gumilyov’s views on the Mongol conquests (although they largely determined the above considerations). Let us only note that it is precisely regarding Batu’s invasion that the scientist’s position is the weakest and does not stand up to criticism.

First, there are no sources that provide the reasons for the attack, or through which probable causes can be traced (as in the case of China and Khorezm). However, European contemporaries wrote about the Mongols’ desire to take over the world.

Secondly, Gumilyov is undoubtedly biased, which already necessitates a critical perception of his ideas. The explanation for the attack as revenge 14 years later for the murder of the Mongolian ambassadors seems far-fetched (this explanation looks especially ridiculous in relation to Kozelsk).

Thirdly, the xenocratic nature of nomadic empires created for the remote exploitation of neighbors does not imply long-term peaceful coexistence between nomads and sedentary people. In the case of China, this has always been complicated by the traditionally hostile attitude of the Chinese towards barbarians and prohibitions on trade. In the case of Russia, it is impossible to talk about any relations at all, because the Mongols have only just advanced to its borders.

Fourthly, the invasion did not at all resemble revenge. The Mongols immediately demanded tithes in men, weapons and horses, and destroyed cities that opposed them. These were precisely the actions of the conquerors, aimed at demonstrating their unconditional military superiority and robbery.

Fifthly, there is a result - the Golden Horde. The probable desire of the Jochids to provide themselves with rich inheritances is precisely manifested here.

Thus, it can be established that there were several goals that motivated the conquering nomads. This is a reflection of aggression, and a desire to take revenge on offenders, and greed, and simply coercion (in the case of a significant part of the nomads, especially non-Mongols, this could be the case).